POLES APART: Language and Cultural Barriers Pertaining to the Polish Army’s 1st Armoured Division in Normandy, August 1944. by Robert Schuman Williams A thesis submitted to the Graduate Program in History in conformity with the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Queen’s University Kingston, Ontario, Canada (May, 2017) Copyright ©Robert Schuman Williams, 2017 Abstract This thesis is a study of the effects language and culture on military operations using the experience of the 1st Polish Armoured Division under command of the II Canadian Corps in North Western Europe in August 1944. The challenges in multinational operations have been, and remain, understanding both allies and the environment in which one is going to be conducting operations. Rapid mutually intelligible communication is a key factor to mission success, whether during high tempo operations or while conducting deliberate planning and administrative work with non-English speaking allies. This dissertation begins with background material on the cultural and linguistic effects on multi- national military operations, examining literature on the diaspora Polish communities and what has been said about the Polish and Canadian armies’ performances in North-West Europe in August 1944. This is followed by a description of the Pigeau-McCann common intent factors that will be used as a framework to highlight what could be done to overcome the effects of language and culture on the employment of military units and formations. Particular emphasis is placed on the effects of culture on leadership in both interpersonal and staff interactions, using the Pigeau- McCann Balanced Command Envelope (BCE) as a subsidiary model to help describe the effect that two commanders, Maczek and Simonds, had on the achievement of common intent. Despite the linguistic and cultural challenges encountered, the 1st Polish Armoured Division fared well in combat and could possibly have done better had more emphasis been placed on bridging the gaps caused by linguistic and cultural differences, joint training, common understanding of the use of liaison teams and liaison officers and emphasis on concise written directions. These conclusions remain relevant in making more effective today’s multinational and, more often than not, multi-lingual military coalitions. There are valuable lessons that have been identified from the past; the time to learn from them is before commitment to operations. ii Acknowledgements I would like to thank my committee members for their flexibility and generosity in the giving of their time and patience to helping make this dissertation better and for coaching me along the journey towards the destination of a doctoral degree: Dr. Allan English, Dr. Ana Siljak, and Dr. Tanya Grodzinski. Without the incredible support, patient encouragement and friendly advice of my supervisor at Queen’s University Dr. Allan English, this project would not likely have come to fruition. They patient staff at the Library and Archives Canada (LAC), British National Archives at Kew, and the help of the wonderful people at the Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum (PISM) in London, under the guidance of the Keeper of Archives Dr. Andrzej Suchcitz have been amazingly supportive and selfless in their assistance to me. Drs. Rob Engen and Claire Cookson- Hills have been most welcoming to me at Queen’s and unfailingly encouraging to me since I began this quest, listening and encouraging at all times. My friends, family, colleagues and brothers-in-arms in Canada and Poland have given me outstanding support and encouragement. Thanks to every one of you. I particularly would like to recognize the late Dr. Jerzy Dobrowolski for his inspiration, encouragement and friendship. He continually encouraged me on this quest. I miss him and dedicate this thesis to the many Poles for fought for their freedom and ours and made Canada their home in the aftermath of the Second World War. None of this work would have been possible without the selfless and unfailing support of the woman who has been with me throughout this project and supported my work because it was important to me to tell the story. I can never thank you enough, Rhonda Kellett, love of my life. Robert Williams May 2017 iii Statement of Originality I hereby certify that all of the work described within this thesis is the original work of the author. Any published (or unpublished) ideas and / or techniques from the work of others are fully acknowledged with the standard referencing practices. Robert Schuman Williams May, 2017 iv Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................................ii Acknowledgement .......................................................................................................................... iii Statement of Originality...................................................................................................................iv Table of Contents .............................................................................................................................v List of Figures..................................................................................................................................vi Chapter 1 Introduction......................................................................................................................1 Chapter 2 Historiography/Literature Review .................................................................................26 Chapter 3 How to Overcome Cultural and Linguistic Challenges .................................................56 Chapter 4 The Western Polish Diaspora: Possible Source of Interpreters .....................................90 Chapter 5 Experiences of the Poles Prior to Coming under II Canadian Corps...........................129 Chapter 6 The Challenges of Intercultural Command..................................................................152 Chapter 7 Preparing for the Fight .................................................................................................191 Chapter 8 Commitment to Battle..................................................................................................224 Chapter 9 Conclusion....................................................................................................................249 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................265 Appendix A II Canadian Corps Order of Battle (ORBAT) August 1944 ....................................282 Appendix B 1st Polish Armoured Division (Pierwsza Dywizja Pancerna)...................................284 Appendix C Liaison Unit Directive (21 A Grp/1987/G (Sp) 8 June 44).....................................286 Appendix D No. 4 Liaison Headquarters, War Establishment.....................................................287 Appendix E Nominal Roll of Officers 4 Liaison HQ (Armd) ......................................................289 Appendix F General List of Polish Personnel (Liaison) (6 September 1944)..............................290 Appendix G Placement Shared Common Intent...........................................................................292 Appendix H Polish Liaison Personnel in Operations Area 14 December 1944 ...........................293 Appendix I Polish Language Studies............................................................................................294 v List of Figures Figure 3.1 Shared Intent (Explicit/Implicit) ............................................................................67 Figure 6.1 CAR/BCE (Theory)............................................................................................166 Figure 6.2 CAR/BCE (Maczek/Simonds) .............................................................................182 Figure 7.1 Map of Falaise Gap.............................................................................................226 Figure 8.1 Placement – Pigeau-McCann Common Intent Factors ...........................................254 vi Poles Apart Language and Cultural Barriers Pertaining to the Polish Army’s 1st Armoured Division in Normandy, August 1944. Chapter 1 Introduction War is chaotic and despite leaders’ best laid plans confusion usually prevails. The participants are often tired, rarely fully informed as to enemy intentions, and in order to maintain momentum or operational tempo in battle they are forced to make difficult choices as a result of successes and failures, both those of their enemies. Needless to say, in the confusion that prevails, time and resources are also rarely in adequate supply. If, into this mixture of competing factors is added the various cultural backgrounds and primary languages of allies, limited or non-existent capabilities in the operating language of superior headquarters and neighbouring allied military formations and units, clear communication of operational intent and reporting of combat results becomes even more of a challenge if not an impossibility. Mistakes are going to happen as a result of misunderstandings and therefore additional attention must be paid to minimize how language and cultural differences can affect negatively communications. When one is building an international and possibly multi-lingual coalition, the challenges that military leaders and their staffs face will require more effort to overcome than would be