Abbreviations ARF Annates Regni Francorum (see Bibliography); ARF Rev refers to the revised version of c. 814 cc Corpus Christianorum, series latina CFHB Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae CHFM Les Classiques de l'Histoire de France au Moyen Age CIA Codices Latini Antiquiores, ed. E. A. Lowe, 9 vols plus a Supplement (Oxford, 1934-71) CSEL Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum CSHB Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae FEHL Colecci6n Fuentes y Estudios de Historia Leonesa Fontes Fontes ad Historiam Regni Francorum Aevi Karolini Illus­ trandam, ed. R. Rau (3 vols, Darmstadt, 1955-60) MGH Monumenta Germaniae Historica, subdivided by series: AA Auctores Antiquissimi Capit Capitularia Epp Epistulae LL Leges SS Scriptores SRG Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum SRM Scriptores Rerum Merovingicarum MIOG Mitteilungen des Instituts for osterreichische Geschichtsforschung PG Patrologia Graeca, ed. J. P. Migne PL Patrologia Latina, ed. J. P. Migne PLRE Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, ed. J. R. Martindale et al., 3 vols: vol. 1: AD 260-395 (Cambridge, 1971) vol. II: AD 395-527 (Cambridge, 1980) vol. III: AD 527-641 (Cambridge, 1992) RIC Roman Imperial Coinage sc Sources Chretiennes SHF Societe de l'Histoire de France SLH Scriptores Latini Hiberniae 423 Notes 1 PROBLEM-SOLVING EMPERORS 1. Arnmianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, XXIII. v. 17; F. Millar, The Roman Empire and its Neighbours (London and New York, 1967), pp. 238-48. 2. A. A. Barrett, Caligula: the Corruption of Power (London, 1990), pp. xix, 1-41, 172-80. 3. Herodian, Basileas Historias, VI. viii. i and VII. i. 1-2. 4. Scriptores Historiae Augustae: Maximini Duo (ascribed to Julius Capi­ tolinus), I. 5-7, and II. 5; see also the discussion in R. Syme, 'The Emperor Maximinus', in his Emperors and Biography (Oxford, 1971), pp. 179-93. For the imperial portraiture of Maximin see S. Wood, Roman Portrait Sculpture, 217-260 A.D. (Leiden, 1986), pp. 33-5, 66-8, 126-7 0 5. Herodian, Basileas Historias, VIII. v. 8-9 and vi. 2. 6. F. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World (London, 1977), pp. 122-31. 7. Sextus Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus, 28, anon. Epitome de Caesaribus, 28; Zosimus, Historias Neas, I. 18-23. 8. Sextus Aurelius Victor 29; Epitome 29; Zosimus I. 21-5. See also Wood Roman Portrait Sculpture, pp. 42-5, 77-9. 9. Sextus Aurelius Victor 30-2; Epitome 30-2; Zosimus I. 24-30, 36 Scriptores Historiae Augustae: Valeriani Duo ('Trebellius Pollio'). See Wood, Roman Portrait Sculpture, pp. 43-8, 109-11. 10. The capture of Valerian is graphically represented both on the Sassanian cameo of Shapur I in the Bibliotheque N ationale in Paris, and in the monumental rock carving of Naqsh-i-Rustam, see R. Ghirshman, Iran: Parthians and Sassanians (London, 1962), plates 195-7. 11. On the Gallic Empire see J. Drinkwater, The Gallic Empire (Stuttgart, 1987). 12. RIC, vol. 5(1), ed. H. Mattingly and E. A. Sydenham, pp. 248-62. 13. C. Lepelley, 'The survival and fall of the classical city in Late Roman Mrica', in J. Rich (ed.), The City in Late Antiquity (London, 1992), pp. 50-76. 14. L. de Blois, The Policy ofthe Emperor Gallienus (Lei den, 1976), pp. 29--30. 15. R. Syme, 'The Emperor Claudius Tacitus', in his Emperors and Bio­ graphy (Oxford, 1971), pp. 237-47 shows that Tacitus belongs to this military group, and that the presentation of him in the SHA as an amiable nincompoop of a senator is a deliberate distortion. 16. Sextus Aurelius Victor 38.3, Epitome 38.3. 17. Epitome 34.5 (Quintillus); Sextus Aurelius Victor 36, Zosimus I. 63-4 (Florian). 18. Sextus Aurelius Victor 37.4; Zosimus I. 71. Scriptores HistoriaeAugustae: Probus, xx (by 'Flavius Vopiscus of Syracuse') is completely unreliable. 19. Sextus Aurelius Victor 39.1-16, Zosimus I. 73. 424 Notes to pp. 8-16 425 20. Sextus Aurelius Victor 39.17-19; Eutropius, Breviarium, xxii; S. Williams, Diocletian and the Roman Recovery (London, 1985 ), pp. 43-8. 21. Williams, Diocletian, pp. 61-70; W. Seston, Diocletien et la Tetrarchie (Paris, 1946), pp. 231-57. T. D. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius (Cambridge, Mass., 1981), pp. 8-10. 22. P. Salway, Roman Britain (Oxford, 1981), pp. 288-314. 23. Seston, Diocletien, pp. 137-54. 24. See RIC, vol. VI, ed. C. H. V. Sutherland and R. A. G. Carson, for the coins of the tetrarchy. 25. R. Bianchi Bandinelli, Rome: the Late Empire (London, 1971), plate 256; H. P. L'Orange,Art Forms and Civic Life in the Later Roman Empire (Princeton, 1965), pp. 37-68. 26. XII Panegyrici Latini, XI. xi. 4, ed. R. Mynors (Oxford, 1964), p. 265. 27. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, pp. 7-8. 28. A. H. M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire, 284-602 (3 vols, Oxford, 1964), vol. 1, pp. 42-52. 29. Ibid., pp. 52-60; E. N. Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire (Baltimore and London, 1976), pp. 127-90. 30. T. Frank, Economic Survey ofAncient Rome (Baltimore, 1940), vol. 5, pp. 310-421. 31. Jones, Later Roman Empire, vol. 1, pp. 68-70. 32. Suetonius, Vita Neronis, xvi. 33. Eusebius of Caesarea, Ecclesiastical History, VI. xxxix. I-VI. xlv. 5. 34. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, Epistolae, lxxx. 35. Translated by H. Bettensen, Documents of the Christian Church (2nd edn, Oxford, 1963), III g, pp. 13-14. 36. For some arguments about the causes of the persecutions see G. E. M. de Ste Croix, 'Why were the Early Christians Persecuted?', together with a reply by A. N. Sherwin-White and de Ste Croix's riposte, all conveniently to be found in M. I. Finley (ed.), Studies in Ancient Society (London, 1974), pp. 210-62. 37. RIC, vol. 4 (3), ed. H. Mattingly, E. A. Sydenham and C. H. V. Sutherland, pp. 117-18 and 130-3; these coins were all struck in Milan. 38. On Christians in the Roman army see A. D. N ock, 'The Roman Army and the Roman Religious Year', Harvard Theological Review, 45 (1952), 186-252, especially section III. iv. 39. Eusebius of Caesarea, Ecclesiastical History, VI, xli. 1-xlii. 4. 40. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, VII. x. 3-9. 41. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, X. 6, XI. 1-4; Barnes, Constan­ tine and Eusebius, pp. 15-27. 42. Barnes, ibid., pp. 149-62. 2 THE AGE OF CONSTANTINE 1. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, 19; Eutropius, Breviarium, IX. XXVl-XXVlll. 2. Eutropius, X. i-ii. Zosimus, Historias Neas, II. viii. 426 Notes to pp. 16-22 3. Eutropius, X. ii. 2. T. D. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius (Cambridge, 1981 ), pp. 28-9. 4. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, 29. 5. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, pp. 32-3, and nn. 36 and 38, indicates that in practice neither Constantine nor Maximin used the title of Filius Augusti within their own territories. 6. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, 35. 7. Zosimus, II. xv-xvi; Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, 44. 8. A. H. M. Jones, Constantine and the Conversion of Europe (London, 1949), pp. 94-7 for a discussion of the evidence and a possible rationalising explanation. 9. Older arguments are dealt with in N. H. Baynes, Constantine the Great and the Christian Church (2nd edn with preface by H. Chadwick, Oxford, 1972). 10. On the development of Constantine as both emperor and Christian see Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, and Jones, Constantine. For Eusebius's presentation of the ideology of the Christian Empire see G. F. Chesnut, The First Christian Histories (Paris, 1977), pp. 61-166. 11. J. Toynbee and J. Ward Perkins, The Shrine of St. Peter and the Vatican Excavations (London, 1956), plate 32 and pp. 72-4. 12. P. Bruun, 'The Disappearance of Sol from the coins of Constantine', Arctos, ns 2 (1958), 15-37. 13. A. D. Nock, 'The Emperor's Divine Comes',journal ofRoman Studies, 37 (1947), 102-16. See also S. G. MacCormack, 'Rome, Constantinopolis, the Emperor, and His Genius', Classical Quarterly, 25 (1975), 131-50. 14. Toynbee and Ward Perkins, Shrine of St. Peter, pp. 195-239; H. P. L'Orange,Art Forms and Civic Lift in the Later Roman Empire (Princeton, 1965), pp. 79-85; R. Krautheimer, Early Christian and Byzantine Archi­ tecture (Harmondsworth, 1965), pp. 17-44; idem, Rome: Profile of a City, 312-1308 (Princeton, 1980), pp. 3-31 and 42-5. Constantine built a smaller memorial church dedicated to St Paul, which was expanded to rival that of St Peter's under Pope Damasus (366-84). 15. Krautheimer, Rome, pp. 7-8. 16. C.-M. Ternes, Romisches Deutschland (Stuttgart, 1986), p. 283. 17. S. G. MacCormack, Art and Ceremony in Late Antiquity (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1981). 18. Krautheimer, Rome, pp. 54-8; idem, Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture, pp. 25-6. 19. A. Alfoldi, The Conversion of Constantine and Pagan Rome (2nd edn, Oxford, 1969). 20. E. Kitzinger, Byzantine Art in the Making (London, 1977), pp. 7-9 and plates 1-4. 21. Letter of Constantine I to Anullinus, Proconsul of Africa, in Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, X. v. 15-17. OnAnullinus see PLRE, I, pp. 78-9 (Anullinus 2). 22. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, IX. ii. 1-iv. 4, for petitions against the Christians in Egypt, sent to Maximin II. 23. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, 48; Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, X. v. 1-14. Notes to pp. 22-31 427 24. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, X. viii. 8-19. 25. P. Brown, The World of Late Antiquity (London, 1971), pp. 34-40. 26. Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, pp. 62-4. 27. Ibid., pp. 64-77. 28. PLRE, vol. I, pp. 563 (Martinianus 2), and 931 (Valens 13). PLRE is wrong, however, in giving Martinianus only the title of Caesar.