Earth Satellites and Detection of Air and Ground-based Activities Ulf Ekblad Doctoral Thesis Stockholm, Sweden, 2004 TRITA-FYS 2002:42 ISSN 0280-316X KTH Fysik ISRN KTH/FYS/--02:42--SE 100 44 Stockholm ISBN 91-7283-376-9 SWEDEN Akademisk avhandling som med tillstånd av Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan framläggs till offentlig granskning för avläggande av filosofie doktorsexamen torsdagen den 3 juni 2004 i sal E2 på KTH, Stockholm. Ulf Ekblad, 2004 Tryck: Universitetsservice USAB 2 Contents Acknowledgements.................................................................................................. 7 Preface .................................................................................................................... 11 Abstract................................................................................................................... 13 I Introduction................................................................ 15 1. General Introduction and Outline of the Thesis.....................................17 1.1 Background.....................................................................................17 1.2 The Author’s Contribution to the Work Presented in this Thesis ....19 1.3 Outline of the Thesis .......................................................................23 II Remote Sensing from Space .................................. 25 2. Satellites for Earth Observations ............................................................27 2.1 Historical Background ....................................................................27 2.2 Satellites for Information Acquisition .............................................29 2.2.1 Optical Remote Sensing Satellites...........................................30 2.2.2 Early Warning Satellites .........................................................31 2.2.3 SAR Satellites.........................................................................31 2.2.4 Signals Intelligence Satellites..................................................31 3. Sensors for Information Acquisition.......................................................33 3.1 Space-based Techniques for Information Acquisition .....................33 3.1.1 Sensors for Acquiring Information..........................................33 3.1.2 Characteristics of Sensors .......................................................34 3.2 Optical Sensors ...............................................................................35 3.3 Thermal Sensors..............................................................................35 3.4 SAR Systems ..................................................................................35 3.5 Signals Intelligence Systems ...........................................................36 3.6 Sensor Fusion..................................................................................37 3.6.1 Multi-Sensor Systems .............................................................37 3.6.2 The ATLAS Detector System .................................................38 3 3.6.3 Image Information Mining......................................................39 4. Purposes of Earth Observations .............................................................41 4.1 Civilian Uses of Earth Satellites......................................................41 4.2 Military Reconnaissance .................................................................42 4.3 Verification Purposes......................................................................44 4.3.1 Satellite Imagery Verification .................................................44 4.3.2 Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty.........................................................45 5. Classical Limitations and Quantum Possibilities ..................................47 5.1 General Considerations ...................................................................47 5.2 Coverage Limitations due to Orbital Constraints.............................48 5.2.1 Minimum Number of Satellites for Periodic Coverage ...........48 5.2.2 Assumptions ...........................................................................49 5.2.3 Number of Satellites................................................................49 5.3 Limitations due to Data Handling Processes ...................................52 5.3.1 Demands on Information Accessibility ...................................52 5.3.2 Data Transfer ..........................................................................53 5.3.3 Data Processing.......................................................................54 5.3.4 Data Security ..........................................................................55 5.4 Photon Entanglement ......................................................................56 5.4.1 Introduction.............................................................................56 5.4.2 Theory.....................................................................................56 5.4.3 Experiments ............................................................................57 5.4.4 Secure Communication ...........................................................58 5.4.5 Possible Space Applications of Entanglement.........................60 5.4.6 Summary.................................................................................61 III Detection of Air and Ground-based Activities..... 63 6. Change Detection in Images ....................................................................65 6.1 Image Information Content and Extraction .....................................65 6.2 The Concept of Changes in Imagery ...............................................67 6.3 Change Detection............................................................................68 6.3.1 Introduction.............................................................................68 6.3.2 Review of Computerised Change Detection Methods .............68 6.3.3 Edge Segment Matching .........................................................71 6.3.4 The Dipole Method.................................................................72 6.3.5 Global Change Detection ........................................................74 6.3.6 Discussions of the Methods.....................................................75 6.4 Analyst versus Computer ................................................................76 4 7. Change Detection Using Neural Networks .............................................77 7.1 Artificial Neural Networks..............................................................77 7.1.1 Introduction.............................................................................77 7.1.2 Biological Neurons .................................................................78 7.1.3 Artificial Neurons ...................................................................80 7.1.4 Multi-Layered Perceptron Networks.......................................80 7.1.5 The Visual Cortex and Locally Coupled Neural Oscillators....81 7.1.6 Pulse-Coupled Neural Networks .............................................83 7.1.7 The PCNN Model ...................................................................84 7.1.8 The Intersecting Cortical Model..............................................85 7.1.9 Level-Set Methods, Diffusion, and Autowaves.......................88 7.2 Change Detection using ICM..........................................................91 7.2.1 Introduction.............................................................................91 7.2.2 ICM Signatures .......................................................................93 7.2.3 Minimum Risk Angle............................................................100 7.2.4 Angle of maximum distance .................................................106 7.2.5 Image Fusion ........................................................................112 7.2.6 Aircraft Detection .................................................................114 7.2.7 Car Detection ........................................................................115 7.2.8 Discussions ...........................................................................118 7.3 Validation .....................................................................................120 IV Satellite Imagery Analyses .................................. 125 8. Satellite Imagery Simulation ..................................................................127 8.1 Terrain Model with Tanks.............................................................127 8.2 Resolution Degradation.................................................................129 8.3 Control of Filter Process ...............................................................135 8.4 Simulation Results ........................................................................135 8.4.1 Resolution Demands for Detection of Tanks.........................135 8.4.2 Resolution Relationships.......................................................138 9. Detection of Underground Nuclear Explosions ...................................139 9.1 Landsat Imagery of Nuclear Explosion Site ..................................139 9.2 Pixel Subtraction Method..............................................................140 9.2.1 Introduction...........................................................................140 9.2.2 Difference Filter....................................................................140 9.2.3 The Subtraction.....................................................................141 9.2.4 The Astrakhan Nuclear Explosion