i Quaternary Glaciation in the Pindus Mountains, Northwest Greece Philip D. Hughes Darwin College, University of Cambridge March 2004 This dissertation is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy ii This dissertation is the result of my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except where specifically indicated in the text. This thesis is no more than 80,000 words in length. iii Abstract Geomorphological and geological evidence for former Quaternary glaciation has been mapped in the Pindus Mountains of northwest Greece. The dynamics and chronology of glaciation in this area has been established through sedimentological analysis, soil analysis and Uranium-series dating. Four glacial events are recorded in the sedimentological and geomorphological records. The most extensive recorded glaciation pre-dates 350,000 years BP and was characterised by extensive valley glaciers and ice-fields. A second glaciation occurred prior to the last interglacial, before ca. 127,000 years BP, and was characterised by glaciers that reached mid-valley positions. The height of the last glacial stage in Greece (30-20,000 14C years BP) is recorded by small cirque glacier moraines and relict periglacial rock glaciers. Evidence for a fourth glacial phase is recorded only in the highest cirques of Mount Smolikas (2637 m a.s.l.), the highest peak in the Pindus Mountains. This phase of glaciation is likely to have occurred during the Late-glacial Substage (14-10,000 14C years BP). All of the glaciers during the different glacial stages were reconstructed and used alongside periglacial rock glaciers to determine palaeoclimate. During the glacial maximum of the last glacial stage, mean annual temperatures were ca. 8-9˚C lower than at present and mean annual precipitation greater than 2000 mm - similar to modern values. Earlier glacial maxima are likely to have been colder but with mean annual precipitation still greater than 2000 mm. Maximum glacier extent in the Pindus Mountains is likely to have preceded the most severe arid phase of glacial cycles indicated in the pollen record and also global glacial maxima. This was because of the small size of the former Pindus glaciers and their rapid response to climate change, as well as the increased prevalence of aridity around the global glacial maxima. The glacial sequence in the Pindus Mountains represents the best- dated and longest recognised record of glaciation in the Mediterranean region and provides a stratigraphical framework for Quaternary cold-stage climates in Greece. iv Acknowledgements I would like to thank Phil Gibbard and Jamie Woodward for supporting this project and providing invaluable comments on the manuscript. They have both been key to this project and I appreciate the freedom they have allowed and their persistent encouragement. This project was largely funded by a University of Cambridge Domestic Research Studentship and grants from the Natural Environment Research Council, Darwin College, Cambridge European Trust, Quaternary Research Association, British Geomorphological Research Group, Department of Geography at the University of Cambridge and the Cambridge Philosophical Society. This project was made much more enjoyable by all in the Quaternary Palaeoenvironments Group in Cambridge, who provided morale boosting, general banter, tea and the occasional stronger refreshment. Especial thanks go to Steve Boreham and Chris Rolfe for providing endless support and putting work my way. Also, thank you to Charles Turner for providing maps and advice about Epirus. In Greece, appreciation must be given to Mrs. Gouris in Tsepelovo for looking after me on all those visits. Also, I would like to thank everyone who came out with me to the hills: Roger, Mum, Laurence Totelin and Jamie Woodward. At the Open University Uranium-Series Facility, I am thankful to Mabs Gilmour and Peter van Calsteren who let me loose in their new laboratories and made me feel at home, and to Jo Rhodes for processing some of my samples. My time in Milton Keynes was one of the best of the three years and a welcome change to familiar surroundings in Cambridge. I would also like to thank Doug Benn, Colin Ballantyne, Ian Fairchild, Mike Hambrey, Chris Jeans, Alan Pentecost, Peter Rowe, Chronis Tzedakis and Ian Willis for lots of crucial advice and information. Rich Betts must also be thanked for his unfailing support and camaraderie ever since those Exeter days. Also, thanks to George Speller for all those beers especially those near-completion Irish Guinnesses. Most of all, I wish to thank my parents and family for their support over the years and Laurence Totelin for being supportive and understanding, especially during the last six months of this thesis. v 1.1 Contents List of Figures…………………………………………………………………….. x List of Tables……………………………………………………………………… xv Chapter One. Introduction…………………………………………….. 1 1.1 The Quaternary and glacial theory…………………………………………. 1 1.2 Stratigraphy and the division of Quaternary time…………………………. 2 1.3 Glacial Greece and its strategic significance in Quaternary studies………. 5 1.4 Aims and objectives of this research………………………………………. 7 Chapter Two. Background…………………………………………….. 8 2.1 The study area …………….………………………………………….. 8 2.2 Modern climate…………………………………………………………….. 11 2.3 Geology…………………………………………………………………….. 13 2.4 Glaciation in the Mediterranean…………………………………………….15 2.4.1 The Balkans………………………………………………………….. 16 2.4.2 The Italian Appenines…………………………………………………. 19 2.4.3 Corsica………………………………………………………………. 22 2.4.4 The Alpes Maritimes………………………………………………….. 23 2.4.5 The Pyrenees and the Iberian peninsula………………………………….. 25 2.4.6 The Atlas Mountains………………………………………………….. 28 2.4.7 The eastern Mediterranean (Turkey and Lebanon)………………………… 30 2.4.8 Greece………………………………………………………………. 33 2.4.9 Towards an understanding of Mediterranean glacial history………………… 37 2.5 Quaternary palaeoenvironments in Greece………………………………… 38 Chapter Three. Methods – geomorphology and Sedimentology………………………………………….. 45 vi 3.1 Geomorphological Mapping……………………………………………….. 45 3.1.1 Ice-marginal moraines…………………………………………………. 45 3.1.2 Hummocky moraine…………………………………………………… 46 3.1.3 Fluted moraine……………………………………………………….. 47 3.1.4 Drift limits…………………………………………………………… 47 3.1.5 Perched boulders and boulder limits…………………………………….. 48 3.1.6 Erosional forms……………………………………………………….. 49 3.1.7 Glaciofluvial features………………………………………………….. 50 3.1.8 Periglacial features……………………………………………………. 51 3.1.9 Rock glaciers…………………………………………………………. 51 3.1.10 Rock-slope failure deposits…………………………………………….. 54 3.1.11 Pronival (or protalus) ramparts…………………………………………. 54 3.1.12 Symbols used in the geomorphological maps…………………………….. 55 3.2 Sedimentological Investigation……………………………………………. 55 3.2.1 Section Logging………………………………………………………. 55 3.2.2 Clast Analysis………………………………………………………… 57 3.2.2.1 Clast fabric…………………………………………………… 58 3.2.2.2 Clast form and clast size……………………………………….. 60 3.2.2.3 Clast surface features………………………………………….. 63 3.2.2.4 Clast lithology………………………………………………… 63 3.2.3 Fine-Fraction Particle-Size (< 2 mm)…………………………………….. 63 3.2.4 Carbonate Content…………………………………………………….. 64 3.3 Morpho-lithostratigraphy………………………………………………….. 64 Chapter Four. Geomorphological and sedimentological evidence – Mount Tymphi………………………….. 69 4.1 The Tsepelovo area………………………………………………………… 69 4.1.1 The Tsepelovo village area and the Laccorponti valley…………………….. 69 4.1.2 Laccos Tselon………………………………………………………… 84 4.1.4 Morphostratigraphical summary of the Tsepelovo area…………………….. 86 4.2 The Skamnelli area………………………………………………………… 88 4.2.1 The lower Skamnelli area………………………………………………. 88 vii 4.2.2 Vourtapa valley……………………………………………………….. 95 4.2.3 Vrichos valley………………………………………………………… 96 4.2.4 Tsioumako valley……………………………………………………… 101 4.2.5 Morpho-lithostratigraphical summary of the Skamnelli area………………… 103 4.3 The Vrisochori area………………………………………………………… 104 4.3.1 Maghoula valley………………………………………………………. 104 4.3.2 Morpho-lithostratigraphical summary of the Vrisochori area………………... 107 4.4 The Iliochori area………………………………………………………….. 108 4.4.1 Kriopotamos valley……………………………………………………. 108 4.4.2 Dimitrios cirque………………………………………………………. 109 4.4.3 Laccos cirque…………………………………………………………. 111 4.4.4 Plaghia valley…………………………………………………………. 111 4.4.6 Morpho-lithostratigraphical summary of the Iliochori area………………….. 112 4.5 Neraidhovrisi valley……………………………………………………….. 113 4.6 Stani Katsanou valley……………………………………………………… 113 4.6.1 Aghia Triada and Stani Katsanou……………………………………….. 113 4.6.2 Tsouka Rossa cirques………………………………………………….. 114 4.6.3 Karteros cirque……………………………………………………….. 115 4.6.4 Morpho-lithostratigraphical summary of the Stani Katsanou valley………….. 115 4.7 Mighia valley………………………………………………………………. 117 4.7.1 Morpho-lithostratigraphical summary of the Mighia valley…………………. 118 4.8 Amarandos valley………………………………………………………….. 119 4.8.1 Morpho-lithostratigraphical summary of the Amarandos valley…………….. 119 4.9 Megas Laccos valley……………………………………………………….. 120 4.9.1 Morpho-lithostratigraphical summary of the Megas Laccos valley………….. 125 4.10 Stani Grava………………………………………………………………… 127 4.10.1 Morpho-lithostratigraphical summary of the Stani Grava area……………… 128 4.11 Ghaidhouro valley…………………………………………………………. 129 4.12 Raidhovoli valley………………………………………………………….. 129 4.12.1 Morpho-lithostratigraphical summary of the Raidhovoli valley…………….. 132 4.13 Laccos Radenas……………………………………………………………. 134 4.14 Spirokapa……………………………………………………………………135 1) Mount Tymphi summits - geomorphological notes……………………….. 137 4.16 Possible glacial