ABSTRACT “‘WE SHOWED OUR NATURAL MANHOOD’: THE CIVIL WAR, BLACK MASCULINITY, BLACK NATIONALISM, AND A BLACK MALE EPISTOLARY TRADITION” Sherri Arnold Mehta, Doctor of Philosophy, December 2019 Julie Cary Conger, Ph.D. English Department This research examines selected letters from African American soldiers who served in the American Civil War. The letters chosen for this study cover the span of the American Civil War from 1861, the year before African American soldiers were allowed to enlist, to the conclusion of the War in 1865. My assertion is that these letters are more than a mere means of social communication; these letters are an assertion of identity and black masculinity—notions African American men were stripped of during slavery. More specifically, I argue that these letters prefigure an early black nationalist ideology. While there are varying iterations of Black Nationalism, the foundation of such ideology is grounded in David Walker’s Appeal in Four Articles: An Address to the Slaves of the United States. Published in 1829, Walker inquires if his brethren are indeed men, and if so they must fight for the rights granted to them by God. Walker’s Appeal calls for the reclamation not only of manhood but also of citizenship—two notions that challenge the stereotyped images of nineteenth-century African American men, including the Uncle Tom, the Sambo, and the black brute. Such stereotypes have been the major focus of social, historical, and literary analysis. This project uses that historical framework to examine how African Americans countered these images through epistolary representation. Improved access to education, coupled with increased interaction and deepened camaraderie between Northern freemen and Southern freedmen within the military ranks, allowed for a rise in letters written by black men. In these letters, black soldiers craft a black masculine identity that demands recognition for full personhood and citizenship. These letters are worthy of attention, then, because in them readers witness that evolving sense of identity. Black men become protectors and liberators. Within letters that are addressed to family, former owners, newspaper editors, military personnel, and even the President of the United States, black men become protectors, liberators, and activists. Finally, this project recognizes these letters as literary works that constitute a distinct epistolary genre that should be included within the American literary canon. “‘WE SHOWED OUR NATURAL MANHOOD’: THE CIVIL WAR, BLACK MASCULINITY, BLACK NATIONALISM, AND A BLACK MALE EPISTOLARY TRADITION” by Sherri Arnold Mehta A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy MORGAN STATE UNIVERSITY December 2019 ii “‘WE SHOWED OUR NATURAL MANHOOD’: THE CIVIL WAR, BLACK MASCULINITY, BLACK NATIONALISM, AND A BLACK MALE EPISTOLARY TRADITION” by Sherri Arnold Mehta has been approved October 2019 DISSERTATION COMMITTEE APPROVAL: _________________________, Chair Julie Cary Conger, Ph.D. _________________________ Jennifer D. Williams, Ph.D. _________________________ Brandi C. Brimmer, Ph.D. iii Dedicated to Pvt. Jefferson Michie for giving our family the freedom to dream. To Caleb and Gabriel for continuing that legacy. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS “The journey is the reward,” is a quote that best summarizes this research project—a beautiful adventure with an immeasurable lagniappe that goes beyond the four corners of each page. While I was told that the dissertation was a process that would require me to walk alone, I was never alone along this path. This project was raised with the support and assistance of a great many people, to whom I am forever grateful. I would like to express my overwhelming gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Julie Cary Conger, for her consistent encouragement and unending patience as I worked through this research project. Thank you for your mentorship and your friendship throughout my entire doctoral program. I could not have hoped for a better professor and advisor. Along with my advisor, I am indebted to the rest of my dissertation committee: Dr. Jennifer D. Williams and Dr. Brandi C. Brimmer. Thank you for your steadfast and enthusiastic commitment to my project. Thank you for asking the questions that empowered me to grow as a researcher. I am eternally beholden to the late Hari Jones for sharing with me his knowledge of and passion for the United States Colored Troops. Thank you for giving me my first transcription opportunity at the African American Civil War Museum and Monument, for the extensive reading list, and for answering the many questions that opened my eyes to the hidden history of the great USCT. I can only hope that this research project honors your memory by continuing to “correct a great wrong in history.” v I am deeply grateful for the many paths, detours, and trails that led me to John Gartrell, Angela Walton-Raji, Bryan Cheeseboro, Ron Coddington, Linda B. Rouse, Mike Everman, and the wonderful staff at the National Archives. Your time and expertise helped this research project bring each soldier’s story to life. A grant from the Benjamin A. Quarles Humanities and Social Sciences Institute at Morgan State University made part of this research possible. I am appreciative of that assistance that furthered this project. To Pvt. Alonzo Reed, Sgt. Tillman Valentine, Pvt. Spottswood Rice, Sgt. William Henry Johnson, A Colored Man, Sgt. Charles Singer, Chaplain Garland White, Captain Robert Hamlin Isabelle, the seventy-four members of Company D in the 55th Massachusetts, and all the other ancestors whose presence was felt throughout this process, thank you for choosing me to be your voice. I am humbled and honored. Last but not the least, I am eternally thankful for my family. I would like to thank my parents for supporting my wildest dreams and aspirations, for answering every “why” question, and for nurturing my love of learning. To my cousin tribe, I thank you for making my project our project. I am because we are. To Sechemelia Lewis, thank you for your listening ears, helping hands, and encouraging words. To my two boys, Caleb and Gabriel, for always asking about “Mommie’s writing.” Thank you for being my inspiration. I love you all to the moon and back. And to my amazing husband, thank you for loving, supporting, and believing in me. All roads led to you. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Figures ................................................................................................................ vii Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: “I am a Soldier Now”: Black Masculinity in Personal Correspondence ...... 55 I. Letters from Pvt. Alonzo Reed to Francis Reed (mother) ................................. 62 II. Letters from Sgt. Tillman Valentine to Annie (wife) ...................................... 79 III. Letters from Spottswood Rice to Kitty Diggs (slave owner) and Cora and Mary (his daughters) .............................................................................................. 98 Chapter 2: “We are the Blackest and the Bravest Race”: Black Masculinity and Black Nationalist Identity in Published Correspondence .......................................................... 114 I. Letters from Pvt. William Henry Johnson published in the Pine and Palm, 1861-1862 ............................................................................................................ 127 II. Letter from A Colored Man of Louisiana found September 1863 ................. 140 III. Letter from Sgt. Maj. Charles. W. Singer to the editor of The Christian Recorder .............................................................................................................. 155 Chapter 3: “Give This a Moment’s Attention”: Black Masculine Epistolarity and the Black Protest Writing Tradition ...................................................................................... 176 I. Letters from Garland H. White to Edwin Stanton (Secretary of War) and William H. Seward (Secretary of State) .............................................................. 191 II. Letters from Capt. Robert Hamlin Isabelle to Capt. Wickham Hoffman and Brig. Gen. Dave Ullman ...................................................................................... 209 III. Letter from members of Co. D of the 55th Massachusetts to President Abraham Lincoln ................................................................................................. 226 Bibliography .................................................................................................................... 244 vii TABLE OF FIGURES Figure 1: 127th United States Colored Troops Regimental flag ....................................... 55 Figure 2: Alonzo Reed's signatures ................................................................................... 69 Figure 3: Sgt. Tillman Valentine cabinet cards ................................................................. 93 Figure 4: Sgt. Valentine’s gravesite at Old Jacksonville Cemetery .................................. 96 Figure 5: Spottswood Rice’s headstone at Evergreen Cemetery in Colorado Springs ... 112 Figure 6: Photograph of William H. Johnson from his autobiography ........................... 129 Figure 7: Advertisement by the “Defenders” printed in the Daily Picayune .................. 141 Figure 8: Painting of Capt. Andre Cailloux ....................................................................