View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by The Australian National University A reference grammar of Puyuma, an Austronesian language of Taiwan Pacific Linguistics 595 Pacific Linguistics is a publisher specialising in grammars and linguistic descriptions, dictionaries and other materials on languages of the Pacific, Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia, East Timor, southeast and south Asia, and Australia. Pacific Linguistics, established in 1963 through an initial grant from the Hunter Douglas Fund, is associated with the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies at The Australian National University. The authors and editors of Pacific Linguistics publications are drawn from a wide range of institutions around the world. Publications are refereed by scholars with relevant expertise, who are usually not members of the editorial board. FOUNDING EDITOR: Stephen A. Wurm EDITORIAL BOARD: John Bowden and I Wayan Arka (Managing Editors), Nicholas Evans, David Nash, Andrew Pawley, Malcolm Ross, Paul Sidwell, Jane Simpson, and Darrell Tryon EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD: Karen Adams, Arizona State University Bambang Kaswanti Purwo, Universitas Atma Alexander Adelaar, University of Melbourne Jaya Peter Austin, School of Oriental and African Marian Klamer, Universiteit Leiden Studies Harold Koch, The Australian National Byron Bender, University of Hawai‘i University Walter Bisang, Johannes Frantisek Lichtenberk, University of Auckland Gutenberg-Universität Mainz John Lynch, University of the South Pacific Robert Blust, University of Hawai‘i Patrick McConvell, Australian Institute of David Bradley, La Trobe University Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Lyle Campbell, University of Utah Studies James Collins, Universiti Kebangsaan William McGregor, Aarhus Universitet Malaysia Ulrike Mosel, Bernard Comrie, Max Planck Institute for Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel Evolutionary Anthropology Claire Moyse-Faurie, Centre National de la Soenjono Dardjowidjojo, Universitas Atma Recherche Scientifique Jaya Bernd Nothofer, Johann Wolfgang Matthew Dryer, State University of New York Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main at Buffalo Ger Reesink, Universiteit Leiden Jerold A. Edmondson, University of Texas Lawrence Reid, University of Hawai‘i at Arlington Jean-Claude Rivierre, Centre National de la Margaret Florey, Monash University Recherche Scientifique William Foley, University of Sydney Melenaite Taumoefolau, University of Karl Franklin, SIL International Auckland Charles Grimes, SIL International Tasaku Tsunoda, University of Tokyo Nikolaus Himmelmann, Ruhr-Universität John Wolff, Cornell University Bochum Elizabeth Zeitoun, Academica Sinica Lillian Huang, National Taiwan Normal University A reference grammar of Puyuma, an Austronesian language of Taiwan Stacy Fang-Ching Teng Pacific Linguistics Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies The Australian National University Published by Pacific Linguistics Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies The Australian National University Canberra ACT 0200 Australia Copyright in this edition is vested with Pacific Linguistics First published 2008 National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: Author: Teng, Stacy Fang-Ching. Title: A reference grammar of Puyuma, an Austronesian language of Taiwan / Teng, Stacy Fang-Ching. ISBN: 9780858835870 (pbk.) Subjects: Taiwan languages--Dialects--Grammar. Taiwan languages--Dialects--Phonology. Taiwan languages--Dialects--Morphosyntax. Puyuma (Taiwan people)--Language. Other Authors/ Contributors: Australian National University. Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies. Dewey Number: 499.25 Copyedited by Lila San Roque. Typeset by Jeanette Coombs. Cover design by Julie Manley. The picture of the wreath was drawn by a friend of the author's little daughter, Lin, Yi-zhen. Wreaths are made by the female to welcome their husband or father coming back from hunting, showing their respect and recognition of his effort and achievement. Printed and bound by Addcolour Digital Pty Ltd, Fyshwick, Canberra. Table of contents List of tables xiv List of figures xv List of maps xvi Acknowledgements xvii List of abbreviations xviii Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Goal 1 1.2 About the people and the language 1 1.2.1 The geographical setting and the speakers 1 1.2.2 A note on traditional culture and social organisation 4 1.2.3 Dialects 4 1.2.4 Language use 6 1.2.5 Orthography 6 1.2.6 The position of Puyuma within Austronesian 7 1.3 Previous studies 8 1.4 About this study 9 1.4.1 Field methods 9 1.4.2 Methodology and the data used 10 1.4.3 Informants 10 Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonology 11 2.1 An overview of syllable structure 11 2.2 Phonemic inventory 11 2.2.1 Consonants 11 2.2.1.1 Stops 12 2.2.1.2 Nasals 13 2.2.1.3 Fricative 13 2.2.1.4 Laterals and trill 13 2.2.1.5 Glides 13 v vi 2.2.1.6 Minimal pairs for consonant phonemes 14 2.2.2 Vowels 18 2.2.3 Phonotactics 19 2.3 The syllable 19 2.3.1 More on syllable structure 19 2.3.2 Medial consonant clusters 21 2.3.3 Schwa apicalisation and reduction 22 2.4 Word stress 22 2.4.1 General rule for stress assignment 22 2.4.2 Stress shift in interrogative sentences 24 2.5 Morphophonemic rules 24 2.5.1 Assimilation 24 2.5.1.1 Vowel harmony 24 2.5.1.2 Rounding assimilation 25 2.5.2 Dissimilation 25 2.5.3 Insertion 25 2.5.3.1 Glide insertion 25 2.5.3.2 Schwa insertion 26 2.5.4 Resyllabification 26 2.6 Allomorphs of <em> and <in> 26 2.6.1 Allomorphs of <em> 26 2.6.2 Allomorphs of <in> 27 Chapter 3 Morphology 28 3.1 Introduction 28 3.2 Morphological units 28 3.2.1 Affixes 28 3.2.2 Roots 28 3.2.3 Stems 29 3.2.4 Clitics 29 3.2.5 Words 29 3.3 Clitic classes 30 3.3.1 Genitive bound pronouns 30 3.3.2 Nominative bound pronouns 31 3.3.3 Aspect-marking clitics 32 3.3.4 Vocative marker =a 34 3.4 Reduplication 34 3.4.1 Fossilised reduplication 35 3.4.1.1 Monosyllabic root reduplication 35 3.4.1.2 Disyllabic root reduplication: C1V1C2V2-C1V1C2V2(C3) 38 3.4.2 Ca- reduplication 38 vii 3.4.2.1 Formal subtypes of Ca- reduplication 38 3.4.2.2 Semantic subtypes of Ca- reduplication 39 3.4.2.3 A comparison of the a- morphemes 41 3.4.3 Disyllabic (CVCV-) reduplication 42 3.4.3.1 Form 42 3.4.3.2 Meaning 43 3.4.4 First syllable reduplication 44 3.4.5 Rightward reduplication 45 3.4.6 Serial reduplication 45 3.4.6.1 Ca-Ca- 45 3.4.6.2 Ca-CVCV- 46 Chapter 4 Lexical categories 47 4.1 Introduction 47 4.2 An overview of basic clause structure 47 4.3 Distinctions between nouns and verbs 48 4.3.1 Word level 49 4.3.1.1 Two syntactic tests 49 4.3.1.2 Nouns 49 4.3.1.2.1 Syntactic functions and features of nouns 49 4.3.1.2.2 Noun phrase markers 50 4.3.1.2.3 A subcategorisation of open-class nouns 50 4.3.1.3 Verbs 56 4.3.2 Root level 57 4.4 The absence of adjectives 60 4.5 Closed word classes 61 4.5.1 Personal pronouns 61 4.5.1.1 Bound pronouns 61 4.5.1.2 Free pronouns 62 4.5.2 Temporal nouns 65 4.5.3 Deictic expressions 65 4.5.3.1 An overview 65 4.5.3.2 Demonstratives 66 4.5.3.2.1 Case and number 67 4.5.3.2.2 Proximal, medial and distal 68 4.5.3.3 Spatial deictics 69 4.5.3.4 Temporal deictics 70 4.5.3.5 Verbal deictics 70 4.5.3.6 Deictic expressions in discourse 71 4.5.4 Numerals 72 4.5.4.1 An overview 72 viii 4.5.4.2 Cardinal numerals 73 4.5.4.3 Ordinal numerals 75 4.5.5 Adverbs 75 4.5.6 Tags 77 4.5.7 Topic markers 77 4.5.8 Aspectual markers 78 4.5.9 Conjunctions 78 4.5.10 Interjections 79 Chapter 5 Noun phrase structure 80 5.1 An outline of noun phrase structure 80 5.1.1 Common NPs 80 5.1.2 The functional extension of na as a linker 90 5.1.3 Personal NPs 91 5.1.4 Locative NPs 92 5.2 Case, definiteness, and plurality 94 5.3 Possessive constructions 95 5.3.1 The coding of the possessor 95 5.3.1.1 The possessor is encoded as a pronoun 95 5.3.1.2 The possessor is encoded as a personal or common noun 96 5.3.2 Inalienable possession 96 5.3.3 Distributive possession 98 5.4 NPs with a numeral or a quantifier 99 5.5 NPs with a demonstrative 100 5.6 Relative clauses 101 5.6.1 An overview 101 5.6.2 Types of relative clauses 104 5.6.3 Formation strategy 105 5.6.4 Non-restrictive relative clauses 106 5.7 Coordinate NPs 107 Chapter 6 Subject choice, mood and aspect 108 6.1 Introduction 108 6.2 Subject choice 109 6.3 Mood 112 6.3.1 Indicative category 112 6.3.2 Non-indicative mood 113 6.3.2.1 Hortative mood and the projective marker -a 113 6.3.2.2 The pronominal clitic ti= 113 6.3.2.3 paka- 114 6.4 Aspect 114 ix 6.4.1 Morphological aspect 115 6.4.1.1 Unmarked forms 115 6.4.1.2 Verb forms typically used in progressive aspect 115 6.4.1.3 Verb forms typically used in durative aspect 117 6.4.2 Aspectual notions expressed by clitics 117 6.4.2.1 =la 117 6.4.2.2 =driya 119 6.4.2.3 =dar 120 6.5 Morphological classes of intransitive verbs 120 6.5.1 Intransitive verbs with <em> and its allomorphs in the realis 121 6.5.2 Intransitive verbs with no affix other than Ca- reduplication 121 6.5.3 Intransitive verbs with realis ma- 121 6.5.4 Intransitive verbs with no realis affix and irrealis/imperative ka- 121 6.5.5 Intransitive verbs with realis ma- and irrealis/imperative ka- 122 6.5.6 Denominal intransitive verbs taking realis mi- and irrealis/imperative pi- 122 6.5.7 Intransitive verbs derived with ki- 122 6.5.8 Summary of morphological classes of intransitive verbs 122 6.6 A note on ka- 123 Chapter 7 Transcategorial operations 127 7.1 Introduction 127 7.2 Verbalisation 128 7.3 Nominalisation 129 7.3.1 The status of <in> 130 7.3.2 Types of lexical nominalisation 131 7.3.2.1 Action/state nouns 132 7.3.2.2 Person-denoting nouns