150 Evolutionary Anthropology ARTICLES Do Animals Have Culture? KEVIN N. LALAND AND WILLIAM HOPPITT Culture is probably not rare in animals, although hard experimental evidence is some form of extra-genetic inheri- lacking. The strongest case for culture is found in the species most amenable to tance sufficient to be deemed cul- experimental manipulation, rather than in nonhuman primates. Human culture is tural. Thus, central to the issue of much more likely to be cumulative than animal culture, but the reasons for this are whether animals exhibit culture is not well established. At this point, there is no reason to assume that cumulative the problem of whether it is possible culture depends critically on teaching, imitation, language, or perspective-taking. to come up with a nonarbitrary def- Currently, animals are being judged according to stricter criteria than humans. inition of culture; one that will prove useful to a substantive proportion of interested researchers. We begin by WHY IS CULTURE RARE IN pologists seem to have given up on the seeking such a definition, and in do- ANIMALS? OR IS IT? notion of culture altogether.3,4 Ironi- ing so are guided by the twin criteria cally, and perhaps benefiting from of consensus and utility. In simple The concept of culture has become blissful ignorance of the problems, bi- terms, we are looking for the kind of a quagmire for the social sciences. In- ologists and students of animal behav- definition of culture that our profes- tuitively, we all know what it is and ior are currently giving unprece- sional colleagues will recognize as feel it to be important, yet it has dented attention to the “culture” of something with which they can proven virtually impossible for social other animals.5–7 This community has work. scientists to derive a consensual defi- witnessed an explosion of interest in The first step is to ask whether nition or to find a satisfactory means animal social learning and purported such a definition would be more use- 1,2 of operationalizing it. Indeed, after animal culture6,8 exemplified by a pro- ful if it were broad and minimalist, much painstaking self-analysis and liferation of books, conferences, and reflecting the continuity between hu- soul searching, many social anthro- papers dedicated to the topic.5,9–11 mans and other animals, or whether Whether or not the culture concept a narrow and exacting definition has utility for our own species, an in- that stresses human uniqueness creasing number of researchers are might have greater utility. We sus- Kevin Laland is a Royal Society University using it to explain both diversity and pect that to most biologically Research Fellow and Reader in Biology at minded researchers the answer to the University of St. Andrews, U.K. His transgenerational continuity of be- research encompasses a range of topics havior in animals. this question is immediately appar- related to animal behavior and evolution, In the absence of a satisfactory ent. A narrow definition, say some- particularly social learning, cultural evolu- tion, and niche construction. He is the and universally accepted definition thing like, “Cultures are systems of co-author (with Gillian Brown) of Sense of culture, most answers to the ques- linguistically encoded conceptual and Nonsense. Evolutionary Perspectives tion, “Do animals have culture?” phenomena that are learned through on Human Behavior (2002) published by Oxford University Press and (with John take on a hackneyed appearance. De- teaching and imitation, socially Odling-Smee and Marc Feldman) of Niche fine culture one way and it is the transmitted within populations, and Construction. The Neglected Process in Evolution (2003) by Princeton University exclusive province of human beings; characteristic of groups of people,” Press. E-mail: [email protected] another way, and a multitude of spe- is not likely to prove particularly Will Hoppitt is a BBSRC-funded PhD stu- cies are deemed worthy of the acco- useful, at least not to the issues ad- dent in the Department of Zoology at the University of Cambridge, U.K. His re- lade. At one pole of the spectrum, dressed in this article. This is not search includes empirical work on social many social anthropologists con- only because the answer to the ques- learning in birds and mathematical mod- tion of whether or not animals have eling of social learning processes. ceive of culture as so deeply shrouded in language, politics, mo- culture is a fait accompli; by defini- rality and institutions, that it would tion, they do not. But in addition, Key words: social learning, innovation, teaching, be grossly devalued were it attrib- this denotation would act as a bar- imitation, niche construction uted to dolphins or apes. At the other rier to understanding of the evolu- extreme, biologists Charles Lums- tionary roots of culture. It would en- Evolutionary Anthropology 12:150–159 (2003) den and Edward Wilson12 concluded courage the misguided view that DOI 10.1002/evan.10111 Published online in Wiley InterScience that in excess of 10,000 species, in- humans are (uniquely) unique, (www.interscience.wiley.com). cluding some bacteria, manifest which is only trivially true since all ARTICLES Evolutionary Anthropology 151 species are unique. No light would may vary from one population to the ture.5,10 While our particular beliefs be shed on how culture came into next. Thus, culture helps to explain are of little intrinsic value, we suspect existence, nor on human’s place in both continuity within groups and that many researchers that study ani- nature. More fundamentally, it diversity between groups. mal social learning would agree with would act as a barrier to the integra- These considerations lead us to us on this point. tion of the biological and social sci- the following working definition of To return then to our question, cul- ences. Premature, over-exacting dis- culture, toward which we hope a ture is as rare or as common among tinctions jeopardize the ability to see substantial proportion of research- animals as it is defined to be. On the relationships between culture-like ers interested in cultural evolution assumption that broad definitions lead phenomena in diverse taxa. would be sympathetic. Cultures are to greater utility and consensus than do Given the primitive state of knowl- those group-typical behavior pat- narrow ones, we have defined culture edge of animal cultures and the cur- terns shared by members of a com- according to its necessary conditions. rent malaise in human culture stud- munity that rely on socially learned This definition leads us to the view that ies, we suggest that a broader and transmitted information. (Later culture is not at all rare, although hard definition is likely to be more stimu- we will discuss addition characteris- experimental evidence of cultures lating. It may prove valuable to de- tics that some researchers regard as among animals, including nonhuman bate the criteria by which cultural essential to human culture.) primates, is currently lacking. and acultural species are distin- guished and perhaps, in time, even Which Animals Have Culture? WHAT IS UNIQUE ABOUT to make distinctions between differ- According to the preceding defini- PRIMATE CULTURE? ent classes of culture. But such dis- tion, which animals have culture? tinctions, if they are going to be in- A “Brainist” Bias? There are two kinds of answers to this formed, can be based only on question. The first kind is based exclu- A slightly (but only slightly) face- empirical data. A broad definition sively on hard experimental evidence. tious answer to the question of what is encourages such data to be collect- That is, for which species do we have unique about primate culture is that ed; a narrow definition does not. A reliable scientific evidence of natural primates uniquely benefit from the bi- broad definition has the additional communities that share group-typical ased anthropocentric perspective of advantages that it provides a com- behavior patterns that are dependent investigators who themselves, without parative framework with which to on socially learned and transmitted exception, are primates. Nonhuman investigate the evolutionary history information? The answer, which will primates are probably studied more of culture and that it encourages the surprise many, is humans plus a than most other species; the findings cross-fertilization of information handful of species of birds, one or two of these studies perhaps receive and methods between the biological whales, and two species of fish. greater attention than those of other and social sciences. Naturally, the No doubt many readers will find this species; and arguably lower standards definition could also be too all-en- conclusion disturbing, while primatolo- of evidence are required for primates compassing, so that “culture” be- gists will probably be up in arms. How than other species to be awarded comes unrecognizable and research- can we attribute culture status to fish some sophisticated psychological or ers become alienated. An overly and not chimpanzees? A full explana- social attribute, including culture. broad definition, like an overly nar- tion will follow, but the short answer is This bias, we suspect, stems in part row one, would have neither utility that for chimpanzees, as for other non- from a need dating back to Darwin for nor consensus. human primates, the hard evidence researchers to demonstrate continuity By what means can we settle on a that their “cultures” are socially learned of mental abilities between humans