George Nash The cupmark conundrum: A Welsh Neolithic perspective Context and opportunity quoted by Stan Beckensall in his useful One of the most enigmatic symbols of volume British Prehistoric Rock Art (1999, the later prehistoric world is the humble 87). Similarly, R.W.B. Morris listed just five cupmark (or cupule). Arguably simple to Welsh sites in his survey of prehistoric rock construct, cupmarks are the most common art of the British mainland that focused engraved motifs found in Neolithic and on motifs more complex than simple Bronze Age Europe. Within the western cupmarks (1989). These rather under- British Isles, they usually occur on rock represented numbers were significantly outcropping or on top of the capstones increased by John Sharkey’s book Meet- of burial-ritual monuments. Occasionally, ing of the Tracks: The Rock art in Ancient they are also found on upright stones Wales (2004). This book provided the that form the inner architecture of monu- reader with an excellent account of the ments. However, cupmarks are only found various sites that were distributed across on or near a relatively small number of the country, using data from the Welsh burial-ritual monuments suggesting sev- Trust HERs and fieldwork notes made by eral possible scenarios. In this paper I will the author. The list of sites in John’s book, describe and discuss the evidence that along with sites discovered and recognised surrounds these simple motifs and suggest by the WRAO brought the site count to reasons why prehistoric communities in around 60. The size of this assemblage this part of western Britain and along the was later expanded considerably thanks to Atlantic Seaboard of Europe found them social media. During the early years of the to be such a potent symbol. WRAO, myself and fellow convenor Carol Brook set-up a dedicated website and Rock art research in Wales is a relatively (dare I say it) Facebook page for Welsh new branch of prehistoric research with rock art. It was from this form of mass- only several books and a handful of aca- communication that we were informed demic papers being published. Much of by professionals and enthusiasts alike of the most recent research has been pro- potential new sites; many of which were duced by the Welsh Rock Art Organisation discovered by accident or from dedicated (WRAO) and the late John Sharkey. Since geoprospection, such as the sterling field- an inaugural meeting in Bangor, North work of Edith Evans (Glamorgan-Gwent Wales in 2004, when the Welsh Rock art Archaeological Trust) on Gelligaer Com- Organisation was initially conceived, one mon. By the end of 2018, the Welsh Rock of the aims was to data-gather informa- Art Organisation held data on at least 115 tion of known rock art sites in Wales and sites (with two additional sites reported the Borderlands. At this time, the Sites in October 2018 and two from the north- and Monuments Record (SMR) from each ern Borderlands in 2019). The majority of the four Welsh Archaeological Trusts of these sites date from the Bronze Age collectively held around 30 sites of varying with a small assemblage attributed to the size and quality; twenty-two more than Neolithic. Based on the various Welsh Trust 96 Adoranten 2019 Figure 1. Distribution of Neolithic chambered burial-ritual monuments in Wales (black dots) and those monuments with rock art (red dots) databases, sites from the Neolithic are usu- Wales with associated rock art, all but one ally associated with stone-chambered bur- contained single and multiple cupmarks. ial-ritual monuments (Figure 1). These sites were constructed and in use between 4000 Contextual geographies and 2000 BCE. Of the eighteen sites in The landmass that is Wales is largely undulating and mountainous, with fer- Adoranten 2019 97 tile growing areas located around the Neolithic burial monument distribution coastal fringes in the south, south west was based on nine distinct geographic and northern parts of the country. Much clusters, eight of which were scattered of the southern, central and northern around the coastal fringes whilst one landscapes of Wales are dominated by group – the Black Mountains Group of the Black Mountains, the Brecon Beacons, Breconshire is the only inland group (Nash the Cadair Ibris Range, the Cambrian 2006a). The geology used for monument Range, Mynydd Preseli and the Snowdo- construction is predominantly sandstone nia Mountains. It is within these rugged and sandstone variants; however, within areas, in particular, the hinterlands that the North Wales Group the geology is encircle the peaks and slopes of these limestone and in Ynys Môn (Anglesey) visually imposing ancient landforms that the geology varies considerably (see Nash much of the later prehistoric rock art, dat- & Weston forthcoming). Arguably, both ing from the Late Neolithic and Bronze geologies are considered to be soft rocks Age is found. The same areas also contain and therefore ideal for engraving and pockets of fertile land, usually along the pecking; however, despite monument valley floors where glacial and periglacial construction, no rock art occurs on monu- activity had taken place some 12-14,000 ments or exposed rock outcropping within years ago previously and subsequent flu- the limestone areas of Wales. Within the vial deposition during the early Holocene. other eight core areas where sandstone The enriched soils would have been an geology is predominant there are a lim- important factor in determining early set- ited number of the megalithic sites that tlement and landscape utilisation. Much of contain engraved rock art including cup- the Neolithic burial-ritual activity though marks.1 Although near-impossible to prove is located around the coastal fringes of due to four to five millennia of inclement northern and southern Wales. According weather conditions, it is conceivable that to Fowler (1983) the potential maximum these engraved sites would have also been number of growing days during later painted, similar to a small assemblage prehistory would have been within these of megalithic sites found in the Iberian coastal fringes (and some distance inland) Peninsula (Nash & Garcês 2017). Painting around south-west Wales (Pembrokeshire) over the engravings would have provided and North Wales (Ynys Môn [Anglesey] essential visual enhancement, especially and Gwynedd. It is within these areas that if natural oblique lighting was not forth- Fowler suggested the potential maximum coming! growing period equated to 365 days (i.e. all-the-year-round farming). This figure is vastly superior to the 240 growing days From antiquarian to professional: in and around, say, the Brecon Beacons of attitudes towards research central eastern Wales or Snowdonia. Available antiquarian and historic lit- erature on the megalithic monuments in The highest density of later prehistoric Western Britain and Ireland is extensive; ritual activity is centred (not surprisingly) however, this is not the place to review it around those areas where Fowler’s maxi- in any detail, although there are a num- mum annual growing period is identified: ber of useful observations concerning the the coastal fringes and the hinterlands, presence of engraved motifs and symbols the wide estuarine valleys and the [prehis- either on or near monuments. Whilst lim- toric] heaths and moors of north-east and ited references to rock art are made, it is South Wales (Nash 2006a; Nash et al. 2005; not until the publication of J.Y. Simpson’s Sharkey 2004). The later prehistoric rock On Archaic Sculpturings of Cups, Circles, art distribution appears to mirror those Etc. Upon Stones and Rocks in Scotland, landscapes where Neolithic and Bronze England and, other countries in 1867 that Age settlement and ritual activity occurs. specific detail on rock art sites was made 98 Adoranten 2019 (with accompanying illustrations). In this Between the excavation of Barclodiad y volume and for Wales, the only mega- Gawres in the early 1950s and until the lithic sites discussed were Bachwen (also publication of several volumes focusing referred to as Clynnog-Fawr) and the Cal- on Welsh megaliths during the late-1960s, derstones (Liverpool).2 During the latter little research appears to have been un- part of the 19th century and the early part dertaken. The publication of Megalithic of the 20th century when photography Enquiries (Powell et al. 1969) revealed had become the preferred publishable the significance of the rock art from the medium, a series of surveys around Wales two Ynys Môn passage graves (mentioned were undertaken (e.g. Baynes 1910-11; above), as well as reporting on nine Grimes 1936; RCAM 1925, 1937, 1956). shallow cupmarks on the capstone of Ty These surveys provided later scholars with Newydd (Ynys Môn) and the 115+ cup- invaluable information concerning loca- marks on the capstone at Bachwen (on the tion and the state of preservation of se- Llyn Peninsula). lected monuments. In later years though, sites such as Barclodiad y Gawres and Further research concerning rock art oc- Bryn Celli Ddu would reveal their secrets curring on being associated with mega- through systematic excavation and special- lithic sites was also published by Frances ist research (Forde-Johnson 1956; Hemp Lynch (1972) who focused attention on 1930; Lynch 1967; Powell & Daniel 1956). the megalithic monuments of the Nevern Valley in north Pembrokeshire (south- Following Simpson’s accounts, very little in west Wales). Sites such as Trellyffaint and terms of detailed research into prehistoric Trefael (as a footnote) are commented rock art and its association with Neolithic upon. Focusing on the same area in Wales, burial monuments occurred until the Christopher Barker in 1992 provided a late 1920s when there was an intensive detailed gazetteer of sites on megalithic programme of archaeological fieldwork sites, several of which contained rock art. undertaken by W.J.