PROCESSES OF ENLIGHTENMENT Farmer Initiatives in Rural Development in China Promotor: Prof. Dr. N. E. Long Hoogleraar in de ontwikkelingssociologie Wageningen Universiteit Promotiecommissie: Prof. Dr. Ing. B. Jenssen University of Dortmund, Germany Prof. Dr. J. G. Taylor South Bank University, London U.K. Prof. Dr. L. E. Visser Wageningen Universiteit Dr. ir. N. Heerink Wageningen Universiteit PROCESSES OF ENLIGHTENMENT Farmer Initiatives in Rural Development in China Ye Jingzhong Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor op gezag van de rector magnificus van Wageningen Universiteit, prof. dr. ir. L. Speelman in het openbaar te verdedigen op vrijdag 11 oktober 2002 des namiddags te vier uur in de Aula Ye Jingzhong PROCESSES OF ENLIGHTENMENT Farmer Initiatives in Rural Development in China ISBN: 90-5808-730-1 Copyright 2002 by Ye Jingzhong For Zihan TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Illustrations viii Measures ix Acknowledgements xi 1 Relevance of the Research 1 2 Theoretical Review 13 3 Entering the Community and Building Trust 49 4 Building the Community Profile 81 5 Exploring Multifarious Farmer Development Initiatives 131 6 Identifying the Social and Cultural Components of Farmer Initiatives 167 7 Social Construction of the Process of Farmer Development Initiatives 201 241 8 Conclusion and Discussion 257 Appendices 269 Bibliography 275 Summary 281 Samenvatting 287 Curriculum Vitae LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Maps 50 1 Map of China 50 2 Sketch map of Pocang Township and the research community Figures 92 4.1 Organizational diagram of Nandugang Village 104 4.2 Historical time line of Nandugang Village 108 4.3 Resource map of Nandugang Village 111 4.4 Transect of Sanggang Village 113 4.5 Settlement and social infrastructure of Nandugang Village 120 4.6 Seasonal calendar of Nandugang Village 4.7 Daily routine of male group (up) and female group (down) of Sanggang 122 Village 126 4.8 Institutional diagram of Nandugang Village 129 4.9 Household social network of Nandugang Village 209 7.1 Expansion of social capital and other horizons of Zhao Wenyou Tables 61 91 3.1 EZE project components and budget 93 4.1 Taxes and levies in Nandugang Village 95 4.2 Functions and composition of village institutions in Nandugang Village 4.3 Major achievements of previous party secretaries of Nandugang Village 117 4.4 Weightings given to income and expenditure categories in Nandugang 123 Village 127 4.5 Farmers’ time allocation in hours per day in Sanggang Village 129 4.6 Institutional network of Nandugang Village 138 4.7 Household social network in Nandugang Village 5.1 Overview of the selected case farmer actors in the research community 164 5.2 Categories of farmer development initiatives and number and rank order of 165 cases involved 5.3 Categories of critical factors and number and rank order of cases involved 6.1 General situation of the case farmers 168 6.2 Land resources of the case farmers 170 6.3 Gender division of family decision making of the case farmers (%) 172 6.4 Key events in the case families during recent years 173 6.5 Main constraints on household livelihood development 174 6.6 Purpose for earning money of case farmers 175 6.7 Social contacts of case farmers 177 6.8 Cultural and entertainment activities identified by the case farmers 179 6.9 Overview of chatting in the lives of the case farmers 181 6.10 Functions of chatting 182 6.11 Information sources, modes and credibility 184 6.12 Functions of reputation 185 6.13 Measures for building a good reputation 185 6.14 Case farmers’ views on trust 186 6.15 Overview of patterns of self-help 188 6.16 Borrowing of case farmers 189 6.17 Possible factors for generation of new development initiatives of case farmers 191 6.18 Possible factors affecting the implementation of new development initiatives 192 193 6.19 Examples of past experiences in family livelihood development 193 6.20 Importance of educational background in farmers’ livelihood development 194 6.21 Influence of others in the engagement in new development initiatives 195 6.22 Consultation with others over new development initiatives 197 6.23 Importance of co-operation in family livelihood development 198 6.24 Functions of the rural market 199 6.25 Influence of government policy on family livelihood development MEASURES 1 hectare = 15 mu 1 U$ = 8.30 RMB Yuan (approximately in 2001) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As a Chinese idiom says, ‘each drop of bounty received, will be returned in a flowing spring’. From the beginnings of my research proposal to the successful completion of my thesis, I have received bounty from many individuals and institutions whose contribution cannot be measured. To all of them I extend my heartfelt thanks for their help and encouragement in conducting and completing this research. I am aware that it is a risky venture to write acknowledgements because for certain one will surely overlook someone’s important contribution. Despite this risk, however, I would like to give special recognition to the following. After completing my Master’s degree in 1996, I approached Professor Norman Long, whose academic achievements are internationally well known in my field of study and whose work I admire. In his office I expressed my intention of pursuing Ph.D. studies under his supervision and he responded positively. After that, the research proposal was comprehensively formulated, fieldwork was successfully conducted, and the thesis satisfactorily completed. During this process, although I was sometimes confronted with great challenges, my general impression has been of a smooth process, which to a great extent has been due to the inspiration of my promoter, Prof. Norman Long, and to the support and encouragement received from him and Ann, his wife. They have both provided me with warm friendship, hospitality and all kinds of support both during my periods in Wageningen, as well as in the field. Norman’s rich intellectual knowledge has secured the academic quality of my research and this thesis. Ann’s contribution in the editing of my thesis has not only made the thesis professional in terms of the English language, but also strengthened the consistency of the thesis in academic terms. I owe special thanks to Jos Michel, who provided invaluable support in all administrative matters relating both to the Department of Sociology of Rural Development and more generally, the University. I am very grateful to EZE (Evangelische Zentralstelle Fuer Entwicklungshilfe E.V.) for the financial support given to a small development project in the research community which undoubtedly facilitated the conduct of the research. In addition, I feel indebted to many local friends, officials, farmers and particularly to the twenty selected case farmers. They received me with generosity, patience, friendship and great hospitality. They spent a lot of time in genuine interaction with me, which grounded the research in a way that would otherwise have been impossible. The research was conducted while implementing a small-scale rural development project in the research community by a team from my institute. This team included colleagues and postgraduate students. I thank them for their support and cooperation. Their presence in the field made my time in the area all the more pleasurable. I would especially like to mention my colleague researcher, Wang Yihuan, who was at the time also undertaking Ph.D. research in the same community. I am indeed grateful that I was able to do my research along with her. Her spiritual support has always encouraged me to strive for high academic qualifications in my professional career. During our cooperation in the field, we had a lot of useful exchange about research matters, and of course at times a lot of disagreements, which created many ups and downs for me, and probably for her too. However, I believe all this has become the unforgettable substance of our time together. Students who provided support during my research included Shen Yajing, Xiang Ying, Xu Xiuli, Wang Zhongpping and many others. Last, but not least, I owe so much to my family. My wife, Han Yanping, has continuously supported and encouraged me in this research, as she does in all areas of my life. Our lovely son, Zihan, was born the year I started my Ph.D. study. My wife has consequently had to take on much of the responsibility for Zihan’s care, particularly during the many times I was in the field and away on other business. She has created a comfortable and harmonious family environment to support my professional development. As one Chinese song says, in my career achievement, half is owing to my wife. Although I regret not having been able to spend as much time as I would have liked with my son, I must tell him how important he is in my life and in his mother’s too. CHAPTER 1 RELEVANCE OF THE RESEARCH Theme of the Research My research concerns development initiatives in rural communities. It starts from a belief that it is farmer initiatives that intrinsically drive local development. More generally, social change emerges from the differential responses (that are mostly embedded in various social practices) to changing social, economic, cultural and political conditions. These processes are dynamic and evolve recursively. In retrospect, the origin of my interest in rural initiatives arises from observations of different kinds of innovations in rural community and household development in several regions of rural China, especially in Pocang Township, Yixian County, Hebei Province, where the four selected research villages are located. In this area, where we find similar socio- economic and cultural environments and land tenure systems, some farmers had started various new livelihood activities. These included the planting of fruit trees, raising livestock, growing Chinese medicinal plants, afforestation by contracting a large area of mountain land, the establishing of shops, small scale industrial enterprises, and so on.