Universität Bayreuth Department of English and American Studies Intercultural Anglophone Studies Nostalgia, Home and Be-longing in Contemporary Postapartheid Fiction by Zakes Mda and Ivan Vladislavi ć Dissertationsschrift Eingereicht von Astrid Feldbrügge Dezember 2010 1. Gutachterin: Hilary Dannenberg, Universität Trier 2. Gutachterin: Susan Arndt, Universität Bayreuth C O N T E N T S PART I 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 The Focus of this Research Project – Nostalgia, Home and Be-longing........................ 7 1.2 The Project’s Approach ................................................................................................ 10 1.3 Current State of Research ............................................................................................. 14 2 THE PHENOMENON OF NOSTALGIA........................................................................... 16 2.1 The Evolution of Nostalgia Theory ..............................................................................16 2.1.1 Longing for Home – Early Narratives of a Human Condition............................ 17 2.1.2 The Invention of a Medical Term – Nostalgia as a Medical Condition.............. 18 2.1.3 Scientific Explanations for Nostalgia.................................................................. 20 2.1.4 Nostalgia as a Mental Illness – An Incurable Modern Condition....................... 21 2.1.5 Nostalgia as an Ailing Emotion – The Romantic Era ......................................... 25 2.1.6 The Decline of Nostalgia as a Mental Illness in the Twentieth Century............. 28 2.2 Contemporary Nostalgia Studies ..................................................................................29 2.2.1 The Object of Nostalgia ......................................................................................31 2.2.1.1 Nostos – Home ........................................................................................ 32 2.2.1.2 Algos – Time............................................................................................ 37 2.2.2 Triggers of Nostalgia – The Narrative of Modernisation and Progress .............. 38 2.2.3 Cultural and Social Forms of Nostalgia .............................................................. 40 2.2.3.1 The Commercialisation of Nostalgia or “The Age of Pop Nostalgia” ....41 2.2.3.2 Imperialist Nostalgia ............................................................................... 43 2.2.3.3 Colonial Nostalgia................................................................................... 46 2.2.3.4 Apartheid Nostalgia................................................................................. 47 2.2.3.5 Postcolonial Nostalgia............................................................................. 48 2.2.4 The Dangers and Potentials of Nostalgia ............................................................ 51 2.2.4.1 Restorative Nostalgia............................................................................... 52 2.2.4.2 Reflective Nostalgia ................................................................................ 53 2.2.4.3 The Fragments of the Past ....................................................................... 55 2.2.4.4 Critical Nostalgia.....................................................................................55 II 2.2.5 The Psychological Side of Nostalgia – Nostalgia and Identity........................... 56 2.3 Nostalgia in South Africa ............................................................................................. 59 2.3.1 The Psychological Impact of Nostalgia in South Africa..................................... 59 2.3.2 Nostalgia and Tourism in the South African Context......................................... 61 2.3.2.1 Nostalgia Tourism – The Cultural Village .............................................. 62 2.3.2.2 Early Forms of Nostalgia Tourism in South Africa – Nature Reserves and the Black Alienation from Nature..................................................... 66 2.3.2.3 Landscape as a Storing Place for Memories............................................ 68 2.4 Narrative Representations of Nostalgia........................................................................70 2.4.1 Introduction – A Brief Outline of Nostalgia in the British Novel....................... 70 2.4.2 Nostalgia as a Narrative Device in Postcolonial Fiction..................................... 74 2.4.3 Time-Space-Relations .........................................................................................76 2.4.4 Challenging Authoritative Narration................................................................... 81 2.4.4.1 Unreliability – Nostalgia, Memory and Authenticity.............................. 82 2.4.4.2 The Unreliable Narrator .......................................................................... 84 2.4.4.3 Multiple Perspective................................................................................ 86 2.4.5 Nostalgia on the Story Level...............................................................................88 2.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 90 PART II 3 ZAKES MDA’S THE HEART OF REDNESS .................................................................... 93 3.1 Polyphonic Nostalgia – Nostalgia and Be-longing in Individual Characters............... 97 3.1.1 Narrative Devices and the Chronotope of The Heart of Redness ....................... 97 3.1.2 Negotiating Senses of Be-longing..................................................................... 100 3.1.2.1 Returning Home – Exiles’ Perspectives................................................ 100 3.1.2.2 Camagu – The Exile’s Journey to his Traditional Roots....................... 101 3.1.2.3 Dalton’s Sense of Be-longing................................................................ 107 3.1.2.4 “Anti-Nostalgics” – The Unbelievers.................................................... 110 3.1.2.5 Xoliswa – The Anti-Nostalgic Par Excellence...................................... 114 3.1.2.6 Nostalgics – The Believers.................................................................... 116 3.1.2.7 The Quintessential Nostalgic? Qukezwa, Landscape and Restoring African Identity ..................................................................................... 120 III 3.2 Nostalgia, Tourism and Conservation ........................................................................127 3.2.1 Tourism as a Tool for Sustainable Development – Nostalgia Tourism versus Eco-Tourism......................................................................................................128 3.2.1.1 Nostalgia Tourism – Dalton’s Cultural Village..................................... 129 3.2.1.2 Camagu’s Idea of Sustainable Tourism Development ..........................135 3.3 Conclusion of The Heart of Redness .......................................................................... 139 4 ZAKES MDA’S THE WHALE CALLER .......................................................................... 141 4.1 The Chronotope – Past and Present Hermanus........................................................... 145 4.2 The Whale Caller’s Home – Triggers for his Nostalgia ............................................. 147 4.3 Personal Nostalgia(s).................................................................................................. 152 4.3.1 The Whale Caller’s Nostalgia(s)....................................................................... 152 4.3.1.1 Childhood nostalgia............................................................................... 152 4.3.1.2 The Whale Caller’s Nostalgia for the Precolonial................................. 153 4.3.1.3 Transoceanic Myths as Sources for the Present .................................... 158 4.3.1.4 The Crossing of Borders – Nostalgia for a Colonial Event................... 164 4.3.2 Saluni’s Nostalgia(s) ......................................................................................... 166 4.3.2.1 Nostalgia for Colonial Times ................................................................ 167 4.3.2.2 Saluni – Historical Memory and Nostalgia ........................................... 168 4.3.2.3 Nostalgia for the Spiritual ..................................................................... 171 4.4 Collective Ways of Remembering..............................................................................174 4.4.1 Nostalgia and the Politics of Naming................................................................ 174 4.4.2 The Hermanus Roll of Honour.......................................................................... 176 4.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 181 5 IVAN VLADISLAVI Ć’S THE RESTLESS SUPERMARKET .......................................... 184 5.1 The Tension between the Implied Reader, the Implied Author and the Unreliable Narrator....................................................................................................................... 187 5.2 Home and Alienation.................................................................................................. 189 5.2.1 Tearle’s World in Transition.............................................................................189 5.2.2 Restorative Nostalgia and