Volume 20, Number 2 2013 www.spacehistory101.com THE HISTORY OF SPACEFLIGHT QUARTERLY ON WINGS OF FIRE; SEEKING INDEPENDENCE JOHN F. KENNEDY SPACE SUPPORT TO HOMER BOUSHEY AND THE IN SPACE: AND THE OPERATION FIRST ROCKET-POWERED SOUTH KOREA’S SPACE “RIGHT STUFF” ENDURING FREEDOM FLIGHTS PROGRAM (1958-2010) Contents Volume 20 • Number 2 2013 www.spacehistory101.com Features Book Reviews (continued) 4 John F. Kennedy and the “Right Stuff” 55 Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration By John M. Logsdon Book by Felipe Fernández–Armesto Review by Roger D. Launius 16 On Wings of Fire: Homer Boushey 56 The Contours of America’s Cold War and the First Rocket Powered Flights Book by Matthew Farish By Colin Burgess Review by Martin Collins 57 Down to Earth: Satellite Technologies, Industries, 24 Space Support to Operation and Cultures Enduring Freedom Edited by Lisa Parks and James Schwoch By Richard S. Eckert and Kelly Ihme Review by Roger D. Launius 34 Seeking Independence in Space: 58 Visionary: The Odyssey of Sir Arthur C. Clarke South Korea’s Space Program Book by Neil McAleer (1958–2010) Review by Michael J. Neufeld By Hyoung Joon An 59 Inventing the American Astronaut Book by Matthew H. Hersch Clockwise, from Review by Jennifer Levasseur top left: 60 The New Space Race: China vs. the United States Dick Gordon, Book by Erik Seedhouse Pete Conrad, Review by Roger D. Launius Neil Armstrong, and Dave Scott 61 Implosion: Lessons from National Security, High Reliability Spacecraft, Electronics, and the Forces Credit: NASA Which Changed Them Book by L. Parker Temple Review by Roger D. Launius Book Reviews 62 Space Chronicles: Facing the Ultimate Frontier 52 Meta–Geopolitics of Outer Space: Book by Neil deGrasse Tyson Analysis of Space Power, Security and Review by De Witt Douglas Kilgore Governance 63 The Bay of Pigs Book by Nayef R.F. Al-Rodhan Book by Howard Jones Review by James Vedda Review by Roger D. Launius 54 Spacesuit: A History through Fact and 64 America’s Space Sentinels: The History of the DSP Fiction and SBIRS Satellite Systems Book by Brett Gooden Book by Jeffrey T. Richelson Review by Dennis R.Jenkins Review by James David JOHN F. KENNEDY AND THE “RIGHT STUFF” by John M. Logsdon As John F. Kennedy entered the White House in January 1961, of the issues he would soon have to address “he probably knew and understood least about space.”1 This would quick- ly change. The domestic and interna- tional reaction to the 12 April 1961 flight of the first human to orbit the Earth, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, convinced Kennedy that he had to enter a space race with the Soviet Union; he asked his advisers to find him “a space program which promises dramatic results in which we could win.” Six weeks later he announced to a joint ses- sion of Congress his decision to send American astronauts to the Moon “before this decade is out.” had never paid much personal attention The Mercury 7 astronauts: Alan Shepard Project Apollo, the lunar landing to the astronauts, viewing them as mil- Jr., Wally Schirra Jr., John Glenn Jr., Gordon Cooper Jr., Deke Slayton, Scott Carpenter, itary volunteers for an experiment, program, was not the only space effort and Gus Grissom. Credit: NASA that engaged JFK’s attention in his John F. Kennedy from May 1961 on brief time in the White House. While made them an integral part of his 2 Apollo was just getting started in the administration and included them in its force of manhood.” 1961–1963 period, Project Mercury, social as well as its official life. In the aftermath of the Shepard the National Aeronautics and Space The “Mercury Seven” were only flight, Kennedy came to recognize that Administration (NASA) effort to a few years younger than the president. the widespread public interest given to launch the first Americans into orbit, Kennedy at the time of Alan Shepard’s American astronauts could be carried out its six astronaut-carrying flight was 43; Shepard, 37. John Glenn, employed in support of various politi- missions. From Alan Shepard’s 15- the oldest of the original seven cal messages. As a presidential candi- minute suborbital flight on 5 May Mercury astronauts and the astronaut date he had been urged by African- 1961, to the final 22-orbit, 34-hour who developed the closest relationship American leaders to include a black flight of Gordon Cooper on 15–16 May with the president and his brother man in the astronaut corps. While he 1963, Mercury’s flights excited the Robert, was 39. The astronauts repre- seemingly gave little attention to that public and provided a positive back- sented a personality type quite attrac- suggestion at the time, as he became ground for White House decisions on tive to Kennedy and about which he engaged with the U.S. space effort, he the lunar landing program. President had written in his book Profiles in also took initial steps to have an Kennedy, overruling most of his advis- Courage—individuals who had African-American man selected as an ers, took the risk of approving live tel- responded successfully to challenging astronaut, judging that such a choice evision coverage of the Shepard circumstances. In the Mercury astro- would be an important signal both launch. In its successful aftermath he nauts, “Kennedy had found exactly the domestically and internationally of his met the seven military pilots who had type of men he needed as allies in his commitment to civil rights. This effort been chosen in 1959 to be the first U.S. pursuit of new frontiers.” In the words ultimately was unsuccessful, but not astronauts—Alan Shepard, Virgil of Tom Wolfe’s classic book on the for the lack of White House effort. This “Gus” Grissom, John Glenn, Scott Mercury astronauts, they had the effort on Kennedy’s part is little Carpenter, Walter Schirra, Gordon “Right Stuff,” defined by Wolfe as a known. Cooper, and Donald “Deke” Slayton— mixture of being eager to engage in The overall history of President and took a strong personal interest in “single combat” against a dangerous Kennedy’s frequent interactions with both their and the program’s fate. enemy (in this case, the unknowns of the Mercury astronauts has not previ- While President Dwight Eisenhower space travel) and of exuding the “vital ously been well documented. That his- tory not only adds new details to exist- Q U E S T 20:2 2013 4 www.spacehistory101.com ing accounts of the Kennedy presiden- flight had been a cy; it is also a case study of the overall major failure, it is not behavior of Kennedy as president, con- clear that Kennedy stantly seeking information, open to would have, or could hearing a wide range of views, dealing have, approved a rec- directly with many individuals, but ommendation to send also placing both responsibility and Americans to the trust on the men he selected to head the Moon. various agencies of the executive branch. Questioning Project Mercury The Flight of Alan Shepard: From the start A Necessary Success of Project Mercury in John F. Kennedy’s first exposure 1958, the project’s to issues involving the first seven U.S. plan called for several astronauts was less than positive. Even brief suborbital before he entered the White House, flights with an astro- Kennedy was warned by his transition naut aboard before task force on space that Project committing a human President John F. Kennedy and First Lady Mercury was technically “marginal,” to an orbital mission. The first such Jacqueline Kennedy watch the launch of the that he should not allow “the present flight would have come in March 1961 first American in space, Alan Shepard Jr. in Mercury program to continue if it had not been for the combination 1961. Credit: Cecil W. Stoughton. Courtesy: unchanged for more than a very few of some relatively minor problems on a JFK Presidential Library and Museum months” and that he not “effectively 31 January test flight carrying the endorse this program and take the chimpanzee Ham and biomedical con- White House concern, according to blame for its possible failures.” Of cerns about an astronaut’s ability to JFK’s special counsel Theodore particular concern was the possible withstand the stresses of spaceflight Sorensen, was “that such a big buildup death of an astronaut during a Mercury raised by the President’s Science would worsen our national humiliation mission, particularly if he were to be Advisory Committee (PSAC). An [the Bay of Pigs] if the flight were a stranded in orbit. The issue of whether additional March test flight without an failure.” to approve the initial Mercury launch astronaut (or chimpanzee) aboard was The one-orbit flight of Soviet confronted President Kennedy during inserted in the Mercury schedule, and cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin on 12 April his first months in office, and the risks the first astronaut-carrying flight, had multiple consequences. Most involved intensified when that launch Mercury/Redstone-3 (MR-3), was important, the flight and the interna- was scheduled only two weeks after the slipped until the end of April or early tional and domestic acclaim that it pro- April 1961 Bay of Pigs fiasco. Most of May. (It is interesting to speculate what duced convinced a skeptical president JFK’s advisors suggested postponing might have happened if that March that the United States had to enter, and the launch until the political fallout flight had carried a U.S. astronaut, win, a space race with the Soviet from the abortive Cuban invasion had making him, rather than Gagarin, the Union.