Exaltation of the Goddess: Narrative Expressions of the Feminine Divine in the Devīpurāṇa James F. Pierce Richmond, Virginia B.A., University of Mary Washington, 2005 M.A., University of Virginia, 2008 A Dissertation presented to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Virginia in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Religious Studies University of Virginia May, 2016 Abstract The present work comprises a translation and study of the Devīpurāṇa, an understudied Śākta Purāṇa heretofore untranslated into English. Literary analyses of the narrative portions of the text demonstrate the novel negotiations of gender, power, and authority prompted by the integration of a burgeoning feminine divine within a Brahmanical religious frame. The introductory chapter introduces the text and situates it within its historical context of early medieval Bengal, while chapter one orients the study of the Devīpurāṇa within broader trends of Śākta and Upa/Purāṇa scholarship. Chapter two employs an intratextual approach to reveal a milieu which simultaneously exalts the Goddess in her various manifestations but regulates those feminine forces through Brahmanical male oversight; the intertextual analysis of chapter three emphasizes this distinct vision of the Goddess’s tenuous position in the Devīpurāṇa in comparison with her unequivocal supremacy as posited by other Śākta Purāṇas. The fourth chapter considers other liminal figures in the text, such as Asuras and Vināyaka, to demonstrate how elements of the cultural fringe are ushered into the orthodox sphere in a manner consonant with the incorporation of the feminine divine. Lastly, chapter five, which focuses on the Tantric influences of the text, contends that the Devīpurāṇa enjoins the practitioner to praise the supremacy of the Goddess, to delight in her ferocious power, and through esoteric means to direct her feminine energies along fruitful spiritual pathways. The second part of the dissertation offers a translation of more than one-third of the Devīpurāṇa, with attention to the text’s four primary narrative arcs. i to Mom and Dad ii Acknowledgements Having begun my graduate training nearly a decade ago, there are many to thank for their years of teaching and guidance, both at the University of Virginia and beyond. First and foremost, I must extend heartfelt appreciation to my advisor, John Nemec, whose compelling instruction, astute advice, and continual encouragement made this undertaking possible. While all of my instructors over the years have been invaluable for my intellectual growth, I express special gratitude to Karen Lang, Bob Hueckstedt, Kurtis Schaeffer, and Bimla Gour. In India, I owe special thanks to Debarchana Sarkar of Jadavpur University for helping guide me through particularly troublesome passages of the Devīpurāṇa. In addition, I would like to thank Paramjyot Singh, who enthusiastically guided me through numerous Śākta sites in Orissa, as well as Probal Ray Choudhury, who offered particularly helpful insights on Śākta Purāṇa. I must also recognize my friends at the Kalighat temple, who plied me with endless tea and snacks while introducing me to their religious world. I’m also appreciative of my colleagues at the Sanskrit Sahitya Parishad in Kolkata, who allowed me access to a number of manuscripts. Lastly, I owe much gratitude to all of the teachers at the Sanskrit, Hindi, and Bangla AIIS language programs; without their contributions I would not have developed the skills necessary to undertake this work. I’m also indebted to the American Institute of Indian Studies, the Jacob K. Javits Fellowship, the Critical Language Scholarship Program, Fulbright (India), and the Clay Endowment for the Humanities at the University of Virginia for funding my graduate studies and many trips to India. And finally, I express special love and thanks to my parents, Adam, Yuki, and Hoshi. I could never have completed the degree without their support. iii Contents List of Figures vi Introduction – Storied Goddess(es): Reading the Devīpurāṇa 1 Towards Feminist Theologies . 2 Bridging the Center and Periphery . 8 In Pursuit of Diligent Translation . 15 Intratextual Constancy and Intertextual Comparison . 22 Investigative Directions . 28 Chapter One – Trending of Śākta Purāṇa 33 Upa/Purāṇa Studies: A Legacy of Colonial Indifference . 34 Rustic Goddess, Urbane Worlds . 37 Recognizing Puranic Intertextuality . 47 Burgeoning Studies of Śākta Upa/Purāṇa . 55 In Conversation: Incorporating the Devīpurāṇa . 62 Chapter Two – Argumentative, Aged, and Deadly: Portraits of the Feminine 66 Narrative Impacts, Intratextual Connections . 67 Orthodox Appropriation of Feminine Potency . 70 Martial Efficacy of a Divine Feminine Nature . 76 Battling Asuras in the Devīpurāṇa . 78 Tamed Śaktis and Wild Mātṛkās . 84 Hymnal Praise: Goddess as Supreme and Subordinate . 90 Conclusion . 98 Chapter Three – From Warrior to Wife: An Intertextual Consideration 101 The Rise of the Asura Slayer . 102 Incorporating the Devīmāhātmya’s Martial and Independent Goddess . 109 The Liminal Vindhyas and Domestic Himālayas . 116 Śiva and the Abiding Śakti . 121 Expanding Domesticity in the Kālikāpurāṇa . 128 Devotional Emphasis in the Mahābhāgavatapurāṇa . 133 The Devībhāgavatapurāṇa’s Supreme and Impetuous Feminine Divine . 136 Conclusion . 142 Chapter Four – Deceptive Gods and Virtuous Demons: Morality at the Fringe 143 Demonology and Cultural Othering . 144 Competing Cousins: The Deva/Asura Divide . 149 Dharmic Daemons: Asura Morality . 157 From Daemon to God: Appropriating Vināyaka . 164 Conclusion . 172 iv Chapter Five – Reigning yet Reined: The Efficacious Energies of the Goddess 174 Evolving vidyā: Female Sonic Theology . 180 The Terrifying Potency of the Padamālā Vidyā . 186 Gender, Power, and Authority. 191 Tantric Formulations of the Divine Body . 201 Conclusion . 206 Conclusion 208 Translation 216 Chapters 1-23 . 217 Chapters 39-44 . 297 Chapters 83-88 . 313 Chapter 111-119 . 329 Chapter 128 . 349 Bibliography 353 v List of Figures 0.1 Sree Maha Kali. 1970s Poster Art, J. B. Khanna & Co. Artist: V. Krishnamoorthy. 5 0.2 Lajjā Gaurī. ca. 2nd-3rd century, Maharasthra. American Council for Southern Asian Art Collection (University of Michigan). 9 1.1 Three piṇḍis of Vaiṣṇo Devī – Mahāsarasvatī, Mahālakṣmī, and Mahākālī. Devotional art. 40 3.1 Durgā slaying Mahiṣāsura. Durgā Pūjā 2012. Author’s photograph. 103 4.1 The Seven Mothers, Flanked by Śiva and Gaṇeśa. 9th century, Madhya Pradesh. Red Sandstone. American Council for Southern Asian Art Collection (University of Michigan). 167 4.2 Sapta Mātṛkās with Gaṇeśa and Cāmuṇḍā. Cave 14, Ellora, Maharasthra. American Institute of Indian Studies Photo Archive. 168 5.1 Cāmuṇḍā. ca. 776-799 CE, Orissa. Khondalite. American Institute of Indian Studies Photo Archive. 187 6.1 Still from Devī, dir. Satyajit Ray (1960). 212 6.2 Durgā. Abused Goddesses Campaign, Taproot Ad Agency (2013). 213 vi Introduction Storied Goddess(es): Reading the Devīpurāṇa The incorporation of a prominent and powerful feminine divine into a patriarchal worldview such as that of orthodox Hinduism1 is a curious phenomenon that prompts questions about the role of gender in religious visions and communities. What might constitute the symbolic value of the Goddess’s exaltation within Brahmanical Sanskrit literature? Why would a patriarchal textual tradition adopt formidable expressions of the feminine divine in any capacity? Could the Goddess in the context of premodern South Asia represent values that the modern reader would deem feminist in outlook? Though we as contemporary interpreters remain incapable of escaping our own hermeneutic perspectives, we endeavor to respond to such inquiries by situating our analyses within a web of associations that might be plausible for the region, period, and audience. In order to uncover the motivations driving a given textual composition, one must strive for immersion in the contextual worldview which gave rise to it. The study of premodern Goddess worship in South Asia and its implications for feminist symbolism necessitates a full consideration of socio-cultural conditions, historical evolutions, literary corpora, and religious lexicons. To that end, this project contributes to a more precise understanding of the Goddess’s symbolic value through a considered translation and study of an influential Śākta text, informed by rigorous intra- and inter-textual analyses as well as an examination of its diachronic historical and synchronic socio-cultural 1 While the category of “Hinduism” has been criticized as overly reductive and essentialist, I agree with Wendy Doniger that its use can be justifiable, with the caveat that we must recognize the plurality implied by the term. Throughout this study, I will speak of Hindu orthodoxy, understood as a Brahman imaginary centered around Veda, caste and stage of life (varṇāśramadharma), karma, prescribed ritual of Sanskrit texts, and standards of purity/pollution. While no governing authority dictates an established dogma, thereby allowing for variations in the expression of orthodox values, a generally coherent traditional worldview stands as an accepted orthodox center in contrast to the varied peripheries that nonetheless come to be assimilated into the rubric of “Hindu.” For an extended discussion on the use of Hinduism as a category, see Wendy Doniger, The Hindus (New York: Penguin Press, 2009), 24-49. 1 backgrounds. By delving into the religious realms of the early medieval Devīpurāṇa and situating