THE ARTS OF EMPIRE: RE-ARTICULATING THE COERCIVE CONSULTATION EVENT, 1492-1693 by Matthew David Bennett B.A., Honours, University of Washington, 2003 M.A., University of South Carolina, 2007 THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULLFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF Doctor of Philosophy in The Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies (English) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) April 2015 © Matthew David Bennett, 2015 ii Abstract The following is a transatlantic study of the initial English and Spanish reactions to the problem of language difference in the Americas, focusing on the language related literature of England, Spain, New England, and New Spain, from 1492 to 1693. As part of the arts of empire, which is the use of language technologies for domination, both English and Spanish explorers, historians, and colonists created bilingual word-lists in the primary phase of the language encounter, yet the burgeoning empires’ responses diverged significantly with the deployment of missionary linguistics, resulting in the extremely uneven production of Amerindian grammars. This disparity in descriptive linguistics signals an understudied historical problem that I explain through comparative analysis of the English and Spanish traditions of language policy and language sciences, with particular regard for the effects of the Reformation on monastic communities and the funding of missionary expeditions. Another problem resides in the manner in which linguistic imperialism de- articulates the linguistic data from the language consultant and the historical context. Moving from texts founded on the interview of language slaves to texts requiring more willing collaboration, my response is the creation of an interpretive model, called narrative re- articulation, that combines linguistic data into a virtual syntax in such a way that the moment of language exchange, called the coercive consultation event, is reinserted into the historical narrative. This expands our understanding of the language encounter and linguistic imperialism by identifying language consultants by name, when possible, and by demonstrating the survivance of Amerindian cultures and Amerindian historical figures. Pushing against the early modern de-articulation of the Amerindian consultants from the consultation event, and questioning the reasons for such divergent literary responses to the problem of language difference, I create an interpretive frame for recovering the moment of iii language exchange and explain the theological and institutional differences between the English and Spanish models for linguistic imperialism in the Americas. iv Preface The following research program and all information and analysis contained within are the sole design of the author. No portion of this investigation has been published elsewhere and no co-authors or collaborators were involved in the writing of this document. v Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................... ii Preface .......................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... v List of Figures ............................................................................................................. vii Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... viii Dedication .................................................................................................................... ix 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 The Arts of Empire and De-Articulation .............................................................................. 1 1.2 Field of Inquiry: 1492-1693 ...................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Theoretical Framework: The Language Encounter ............................................................. 4 1.3.1 Captivity as Source of Linguistic Data ............................................................................ 4 1.3.2 Linguistic Imperialism ....................................................................................................... 6 1.3.3 The Utopian Model ......................................................................................................... 13 1.4 Background Scholarship ......................................................................................................... 17 1.5 Methodology ............................................................................................................................. 21 1.6 Chapter Summaries ................................................................................................................. 23 1.6.1 Chapter 2: Narrative Re-Articulation: How to Read for the Coercive Consultation Event ........................................................................................................................................... 23 1.6.2 Chapter 3: Early Modern Word-Lists: Restoring Historical Context and the Source of Linguistic Knowledge ............................................................................................. 24 1.6.3 Chapter 4: The Arts of Empire: Language Sciences and the Colonization of the Americas ...................................................................................................................................... 25 1.6.4 Chapter 5: Survivance Grammatica: The Timucua and Cockenoe’s Grammar ..... 26 1.6.5 Epilogue ............................................................................................................................. 27 2 Narrative Re-Articulation: How to Read for the Coercive Consultation Event ....... 29 2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 29 2.2 The Silent Rhetoric: From Gestural Language to Pointing .............................................. 37 2.3 Interpreters are Language Slaves ........................................................................................... 42 2.4 Language Learning, Pointing, the Body ............................................................................... 49 2.5 Words ≠ Words ....................................................................................................................... 55 2.6 The Rhetoric of Lists: Virtual Syntax ................................................................................... 60 2.7 Earliest Examples of the Arts of Empire ............................................................................ 66 2.8 “I, with pen in hand, asked him for other words” ............................................................. 68 2.9 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 74 3 Early Modern Word-Lists: Restoring Historical Context and the Source of Linguistic Knowledge .................................................................................................. 76 3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 76 3.2 Merismus: “he bit his tong in twayne within his mouth” .................................................. 78 3.3 Colonial Decency: “Icune, Come hither” ............................................................................ 85 3.4 Congeries: “Ka ka torawincs yowo. What call you this [?]” .................................................... 90 3.5 Counter-Translations: “what they wanted to understand” ............................................. 101 3.6 The Face of Kempes: “Sakahocan, to write” .................................................................... 109 3.7 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 117 4 The Arts of Empire: Language Sciences and the Colonization of the Americas ... 120 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 120 vi 4.2 The Uneven Advance of Linguistic Imperialism .............................................................. 123 4.3 Linguistic Ideology: The Shared Background ................................................................... 132 4.4 Pre-Contact Language Sciences and Policies .................................................................... 148 4.5 The Monastic Tradition and Imperial Expansion ............................................................ 159 4.6 Catholic and Puritan Evangelism ........................................................................................ 167 4.7 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 182 5 Survivance Grammatica: The Timucua and Cockenoe’s Grammar ....................... 186 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 186 5.2 Reduction(s): The Missionary Reservations .....................................................................