Risk Analysis, Vol. 31, No. 5, 2011 DOI: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.2010.01538.x Perspective Risk-Taking and the Media Peter Fischer,1,∗ Evelyn Vingilis,2 Tobias Greitemeyer,3 and Claudia Vogrincic1 In recent years, media formats with risk-glorifying content, such as video games that simulate illegal street racing (“bang and crash” games), films about extreme sports, and risky stunts have emerged as top sellers of the media industry. A variety of recent studies conducted by several researchers revealed that exposure to risk-glorifying media content (e.g., video games that simulate reckless driving, smoking and drinking in movies, or depictions that glorify ex- treme sports) increases the likelihood that recipients will show increased levels of risk-taking inclinations and behaviors. The present article (1) reviews the latest research on the detri- mental impact of risk-glorifying media on risk-taking inclinations (cognitions, emotions, be- haviors), (2) puts these findings in the theoretical context of recent sociocognitive models on media effects, and (3) makes suggestions to science and policymakers on how to deal with these effects in the future. KEY WORDS: Media effects; risk-glorifying media; risk taking; sociocognitive models Use your car as a weapon and battle your way to the haviors. For example, binge drinking is on the rise front of the pack by taking down rivals and causing spec- in Western countries;(10) with Germany witnessing a tacular crashes. (advertising slogan for the video racing doubling in the number of 15- to 19-year-old ado- game Burnout 3) lescents being treated in hospital due to extreme al- In as much as risk-taking behavior is among the cohol abuse between 2002 and 2009. In Germany, main causes of lethal injuries among children, ado- still 20.3% of 11- to 17-year-old teenagers are smok- (1) lescents, and young adults, it is not surprising that ing cigarettes,(11) and the 2008 report on the global both the general public and scientists are concerned AIDS epidemic found that HIV infections had in- about the determinants of and how risk-taking be- creased to approximately 33 million people world- (2−7) havior can be reduced. For example, risky be- wide in 2007.(12,13) haviors in road traffic such as impaired driving, In the meantime there is considerable evidence excessive speeding, illegal street racing, and failing to that risk-glorifying media content such as video (1,8) use seatbelts accounted for approximately 51% games that simulate reckless driving or illegal street of the total economic crash cost ($230.6 billion) of racing, smoking and drinking role models in movies, all 16.4 million U.S. motor vehicle collisions (with 5.3 or advertisements for extreme sports significantly (9) million injuries and 41,821 fatalities) in 2000. The foster the occurrence of risk-taking behaviors in so- picture is similar for other forms of risk-taking be- ciety. Although it is not known how often risk- glorifying media lead to negative consequences, one 1University of Graz, Austria. study did examine media-based, “copycat” burn 2University of Western Ontario, Canada. injuries. Hurley et al.(14) retrospectively examined 3University of Innsbruck, Austria. ∗ medical records of patients aged 5–19 admitted to a Address correspondence to Peter Fischer, Institute of Psychol- ogy, Social Psychology, Karl-Franzens-University, Graz, Austria; hospital burn unit between 2000 and 2003: 4% were peter.fi[email protected]. potential copycat injuries. 699 0272-4332/11/0100-0699$22.00/1 C 2010 Society for Risk Analysis 700 Fischer et al. Inspired by media violence research (which pro- communicated to young children with cartoons such vided strong evidence that violent media causally as Speed Racer, and there is anecdotal evidence of increases aggression; see Anderson et al. 2010),(15) “copycat stunts.”(19) For example, the public recently an emerging field of research has been investigat- became aware of the potentially detrimental effects ing whether similar causal links can be found be- of risk-glorifying video racing games (which simu- tween exposure to risk-glorifying media content and late street racing in a photographically realistic video increased risk-taking inclinations. This expectation game environment) when the popular racing game, has been confirmed: several types of media (video “Need for Speed,” was found in the vehicle of one games, films, TV shows, newspaper articles) that of two young male drivers who appeared to be rac- depict risk taking in a positive light causally in- ing in Toronto on January 26, 2006, following a col- crease risk-promoting cognitions, emotions, and be- lision that led to the death of a taxi-driver.(19) This haviors.(16−18) The present article reviews recent and other similar events have led policymakers to research on the impact of risk-glorifying media wonder whether playing racing games that promote content on risk-taking inclinations, identifies under- illegal street racing might motivate players to en- lying psychological processes, and integrates these gage in real-life street racing and other forms of findings into a new theoretical perspective based on risky driving. For example, Australian road safety au- sociocognitive theories. thorities tried to ban a video game on street racing through virtual images of Sydney, Australia (cited in Vingilis & Smart, 2009(19)), which was promoted 1. CORRELATIONAL AND EXPERIMENTAL by the following advertisement: “Burn up a storm RESEARCH ON RISK-GLORIFYING past famous landmarks such as the Opera House and MEDIA EFFECTS Sydney Harbour.” Do games like these and other The current perspective article works with a def- forms of risk-glorifying media increase risky driving inition suggested by Ben-Zur and Zeidner:(2) “Risk and other forms of risk taking? In the following sec- taking refers to one’s purposive participation in some tions we review the empirical evidence on the ques- form of behavior that involves potential negative tion whether such risk-glorifying depictions in the consequences or losses (social, monetary, interper- media indeed increase recipients’ inclinations to risk sonal) as well as perceived positive consequences or taking. gains” (p. 110). Risk-taking behaviors can be ob- served in a variety of domains, such as unhealthy 1.1. Correlational Research living (drugs, alcohol, smoking), promiscuous sex- uality (unprotected sex, promiscuity), road traffic A variety of correlational studies indicate that (e.g., reckless driving, street racing, driving with- increased levels of exposure to risk-glorifying media out seat belts), or dangerous sport activities (e.g., are associated with increased levels of risk-taking in- solo climbing without security ropes).(2) Can risk- clinations and actual risk-taking behaviors. For ex- taking inclinations and behaviors be influenced by ample, Beullens and van den Bulck(20) obtained data risk-glorifying media content? from 2,194 adolescents and found a positive correla- The media that surrounds us is full of risk- tion between exposure to risk-glorifying media and glorifying depictions. For example, in the famous positive attitudes toward both risky driving and will- TV show Jackass (MTV), young men engage in ex- ingness to take risks in traffic situations (e.g., driv- tremely dangerous activities, such as risky driving, ing while impaired). Further positive associations downhill racing with skateboards, risky stunts, self- between consumption of risk-glorifying media con- experimentation with weapons and electro shocks, tent and willingness to take risks have been found for etc. All these dangerous activities are performed in viewing images of smoking on television and starting a rather “funny” and thus risk-glorifying way. In ad- to smoke;(21−23) exposure to alcohol advertising and dition, we find risk-glorifying media content in music adolescent alcohol consumption;(24) and adolescents’ lyrics, car advertisements, and video games. More- exposure to sexual media stimuli and actual sexual over, Vingilis and Smart(19) have suggested that il- activity.(25) Fischer et al. (2007, Study 1) also found legal street racing has increased because of the pro- that weekly frequency of playing racing games was motion of a risk-glorifying street racing culture in significantly positively associated with self-reported the media, including video games, movies, and car competitive driving, obtrusive driving, and motor ve- advertisements. This risk-promoting culture is even hicle collisions, as well as negatively associated with Risk-Taking and the Media 701 cautious driving.(17) In a similar study, Kubitzki(26,27) creased risk-taking inclinations on cognitive, affec- found that among 657 13- and 17-year-old partici- tive, and behavioral levels. pants, there was a positive association between con- For example, Fischer and colleagues(17,16,18) un- sumption of risk-glorifying racing games and illegal dertook a systematic experimental investigation of underage driving. whether exposure to risk-glorifying video racing Findings from longitudinal studies also support games increases individuals’ inclination toward risk the assumption that consumption of risk-glorifying taking. Video racing games (also called virtual driv- media content is positively associated with risk- ing games or bang and crash games; e.g., “Need taking inclinations and behaviors. For example, Wills for Speed,” “Burnout,” or “Midnight Racer”) have et al.(28) investigated a sample of 961 young adults emerged as top-sellers in the video game indus- and observed that prior