ADAPTATION TO THE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN SMALL ISLAND COMMUNITIES: AN ANALYSIS OF SCOTTISH CASE STUDIES Fiona Cunningham A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of St Andrews 2019 Full metadata for this item is available in St Andrews Research Repository at: http://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item: http://hdl.handle.net/10023/17898 This item is protected by original copyright Adaptation to the Impacts of Climate Change in Small Island Communities: an analysis of Scottish case studies Fiona Cunningham This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) at the University of St Andrews September 2018 Declarations Candidate’s declaration I, Fiona Cunningham, do hereby certify that this thesis, submitted for the degree of PhD, which is approximately 80,000 words in length, has been written by me, and that it is the record of work carried out by me, or principally by myself in collaboration with others as acknowledged, and that it has not been submitted in any previous application for any degree. I was admitted as a research student at the University of St Andrews in September 2013. I received funding from an organisation or institution and have acknowledged the funder(s) in the full text of my thesis. Date: Signature of candidate: Supervisor’s declaration I hereby certify that the candidate has fulfilled the conditions of the Resolution and Regulations appropriate for the degree of PhD in the University of St Andrews and that the candidate is qualified to submit this thesis in application for that degree. Date: Signature of supervisor: Permission for publication In submitting this thesis to the University of St Andrews we understand that we are giving permission for it to be made available for use in accordance with the regulations of the University Library for the time being in force, subject to any copyright vested in the work not being affected thereby. We also understand, unless exempt by an award of an embargo as requested below, that the title and the abstract will be published, and that a copy of the work may be made and supplied to any bona fide library or research worker, that this thesis will be electronically accessible for personal or research use and that the library has the i right to migrate this thesis into new electronic forms as required to ensure continued access to the thesis. I, Fiona Cunningham, confirm that my thesis does not contain any third-party material that requires copyright clearance. The following is an agreed request by candidate and supervisor regarding the publication of this thesis: PRINTED COPY No embargo on print copy. ELECTRONIC COPY No embargo on electronic copy. Date: Signature of candidate: Date: Signature of supervisor: Underpinning Research Data or Digital Outputs Candidate’s declaration I, Fiona Cunningham, hereby certify that no requirements to deposit original research data or digital outputs apply to this thesis and that, where appropriate, secondary data used have been referenced in the full text of my thesis. Date: Signature of candidate: ii Acknowledgements A doctoral thesis is submitted with one named individual on the front cover. However, numerous people have been instrumental, in one way or another, to the production of this thesis. First and foremost, my primary supervisor Dr Timothy Stojanovic has provided invaluable insight, support and guidance. Under his careful direction and supervision, it was possible to navigate the challenges and complexities associated with the research. Tim’s flexible approach to leadership has given me the opportunity to explore various avenues within the study and has, in turn, allowed me to steer the research process. His detailed knowledge, positive attitude and tireless encouragement have helped me through to the end. I should also extend thanks to Dr Richard Bates, the secondary supervisor for this research. Furthermore, my gratitude goes to both MASTS and ClimateXChange for funding the research. I would also like to thank MASTS Coastal Zone Forum for the provision of further grant funding that enabled field visits to the case studies. A very large portion of credit must be given to the communities in Unst, South Uist and Westray, particularly the individuals who participated in workshops and focus groups. Thank you for taking the time to share your stories and experiences with me. Your voices have been fundamental to this research. Without you, there would be no thesis. Moreover, my sincere gratitude to community members in the case studies who shared off-record anecdotes and stories, and who made me feel so welcome in their islands. Thanks must be given to those who acted as key gatekeepers in the case studies as well as Shetland, Orkney and the Outer Hebrides more broadly including community development officers, coastal zone managers, marine planners and community council chairpersons. Additionally, thanks to students and staff at the University of St Andrews who assisted in facilitating workshops in the case study islands. I have been fortunate enough to have a strong support system around me during this process. There are several colleagues, friends and family members who deserve special mention: Special thanks to Liam O’Brien and Emily Gal: two unwavering sources of moral support. ‘Colleagues’ on paper, but in reality two wonderfully supportive friends. Thank you for being there through every challenge, crisis (minor or otherwise) and triumph. You both brought light to some considerably bleak days and it is difficult to imagine what this process might have been like without your support. My sincere gratitude to Dr Rachel Hardie: a person who truly understands the tribulations involved in undertaking such a mammoth piece of work. It is incredibly reassuring to have someone in your corner who knows what it takes to do a PhD and will listen to your deliberations without judgment. Thank you for your advice, your sympathetic ear and most of all your friendship. I would like to express an enormous thank you to William. It is rare to find someone with such inherent patience and positivity. You have tolerated so much iii throughout the entire process. You have held my hand firmly (figuratively and sometimes literally) through each step. Thank you for listening to every problem, no matter how small or insignificant, and for helping me to maintain perspective on the important things in life. Lastly, I would like to extend special recognition to my family, particularly my parents, who have continually taught me the value of hard work and perseverance by their own example. Undertaking this piece of work has not been an easy task. Thank you for encouraging me to keep going and reminding me of what I was working for, even when I had forgotten. I am forever grateful for your support. iv Abstract The IPCC have identified small islands as high-risk settings facing adverse impacts of climate change, particularly flooding and storm surge, with potentially detrimental consequences for human wellbeing and livelihoods. The Scottish Islands are peripheral locations that are physically exposed to storms and coastal flooding; the frequency and magnitude of which are likely to be exacerbated under changing climatic conditions. Key questions remain about the issues, capacity and priorities of small island communities for adapting to climate change impacts. The research seeks to review and develop theory on the scale of adaptation measures and considers: the appropriateness of top-down versus bottom-up approaches within small island contexts; the role of participatory processes and utility of scenario-based tools in island adaptation; and the effectiveness of ‘one-size-fits-all’ adaptation planning where local priorities differ significantly. Communities in South Uist (Outer Hebrides), Westray (Orkney) and Unst (Shetland) formed a multiple case study approach. Policy mapping, documentary analysis and deliberative workshops were employed to develop initial background understandings of each case study. Empirical evidence was drawn from focus groups (N=9) which explored local perspectives on issues and priorities for adaptation in the case study communities. The findings highlight that place-based issues and priorities exist within the case studies, with significant variation across all cases despite the communities being of similar population, demographic profile and island context. The research contributes to debate on one-size-fits-all adaptation planning and supports the argument that national adaptation strategies can only be effective in small islands if local issues are understood. The findings support the integration of top-down-and-bottom-up approaches as a pathway for effective adaptation in small island settings. Deeper knowledge of the interface between community-based action and strategic policy in cross-scale climate change governance processes is developed and there is scope to apply a similar approach to understand adaptation planning priorities in other small island locations. v Table of Contents Declarations .............................................................................................................................. i Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. iii Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... v Table of Contents