A FORCE FOR FEDERATION: International Exhibitions and the Formation of Australian Ethos (1851-1901) Kirsten Orr A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of New South Wales 2005 Originality Statement I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the project’s design and conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged. ……………………………………… Copyright Statement I hereby grant to the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or hereafter known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all proprietary rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I have obtained permission to use copyright material; where permission has not been granted I have applied / will apply for a partial restriction of the digital copy of my thesis or dissertation. ……………………………………… Authenticity Statement I certify that the digital copy is a direct equivalent of the final officially approved version of my thesis. No emendation of content has occurred and if there are any minor variations in formatting, they are the result of the conversion to Adobe Acrobat format. ……………………………………… iii Abstract In 1879 the British colony of New South Wales hosted the first international exhibition in the Southern Hemisphere. This was immediately followed by the Melbourne International Exhibition of 1880 in the colony of Victoria and the success of these exhibitions inspired the Melbourne Centennial International Exhibition, which was held in 1888 to celebrate the centenary of white settlement in Australia. My thesis is that these international exhibitions had a profound impact on the development of our cities, the evolution of an Australian ethos and the gaining of nationhood. The immense popularity and comprehensive nature of the exhibitions made them the only major events in late nineteenth-century Australia that brought the people together in an almost universally shared experience. The exhibitions conveyed official ideologies from the organising elites to ordinary people and encouraged the dissemination of new cultural sentiments, political aspirations, and moral and educational ideals. Many exhibition commissioners, official observers and ideologues were also predominantly involved in the Federation movement and the wider cultural sphere. The international exhibitions assisted the development of an Australian urban ethos, which to a large extent replaced the older pastoral / frontier image. Many of the more enduring ideas emanating from the exhibitions were physically expressed in the consequent development of our cities – particularly Sydney and Melbourne, both of which had achieved metropolitan status and global significance by the end of the nineteenth century. The new urban ethos, v dramatically triggered by Sydney 1879, combined with and strengthened the national aspirations and sentiments of the Federation movement. Thus the exhibitions created an immediate connection between colonial pride in urban development and European and American ideals of nation building. They also created an increasing cultural sophistication and a growing involvement in social movements and political associations at the national level. The international exhibitions, more than any other single event, convinced the colonials that they were all Australians together and that their destiny was to be united as one nation. At that time, Australians began to think about national objectives. The exhibitions not only promulgated national sentiment and a new ethos, but also provided opportunities for independent colonial initiatives, inter-colonial cooperation and a more equal position in the imperial alliance. Thus they became a powerful impetus, hitherto unrecognised, for the complex of social, political and economic developments that made Federation possible. vi Table of Contents Originality, Copyright & Authenticity Statements iii Abstract v List of Appendices ix List of Illustrations x Acknowledgements xvii Introduction Exhibitions and Ethos: Perspectives and Themes Time-frame – The Age of Nationalism – Influence of Greek Antiquity – Utilitarianism – Growth and Change in Australia 1851-1901 – Scope – Argument – Urban Development and Nation Building – Images of Nationhood and Ethos Formation – Seeds of Nationhood 1 Chapter 1 The Prelude Years 1851-1878 Immigrants – The Growth of Melbourne – The Growth of Sydney – Educating the Populace for a New Era: Classical or Technical? – Democracy, Responsible Government and the Stirrings of Nationhood – Conclusion 33 Chapter 2 The Politai and Ethos Formation New South Wales Commissioners for 1879 – Victorian Commissioners for 1880 – Objectives of the Australian International Exhibitions – Conclusion 81 Chapter 3 The Mass Culture of the International Exhibitions Promotion of the Exhibitions – Participation in the Exhibitions – Domestic Exhibits and Identification with Household Design – The Other Half: Women at the Exhibitions – Exposing Visitors to Symbols of Colonial Nationality – The Exhibition as Social Text – Conclusion 135 Chapter 4 International Exhibitions and the Formation of an Australian Urban Ethos Focus on the City – Art and Architecture for a Civilised Society – Cities and Citizenship – Conclusion 213 Chapter 5 From Ephemeral Vistas to Urban Reality: The Impact of Sentiment and Symbol on Sydney’s Public Institutions Planning Sydney: A Case for the South Kensington Model – Sydney Technical College and Technological Museum – National Art Gallery and Free Public Library – General Post Office – Conclusion 269 vii Chapter 6 Booming Metropolis: Sentiment and Symbol in Australian Commercial and Residential Development Seaport Sydney – Mercantile Melbourne – Rising Domes – Technological Progress for the City – Residential Development and the Growth of the Suburbs – The Australian Dream: A Home in the Suburbs – Bricks, Mortar and Marseilles Tiles – An Emerging Australian Architectural Style – Conclusion 339 Chapter 7 The Melbourne Centennial International Exhibition, 1888: Prelude to Federation Taking a United Stand – Intercolonial Networking for a Common Purpose – Projecting a Visible Australian Identity - Conclusion 425 Chapter 8 Festivals of the People: A Force for Federation Australia’s Destiny: Nationhood – The Sentimental Nation – National Identity: The Federation Style House – National Identity: The Empire – The Exhibition Example: Overcoming the Customs Barrier to Federation – Exhibitions, Ethos and the People’s Movement to Federation – Exhibition Architecture: A Setting for Federation – Conclusion 471 Conclusion 527 Bibliography 533 Appendices 565 viii List of Appendices Appendix A New South Wales Commissioners for the International Exhibitions 565 Table A1 New South Welshmen Active in the C19th International Exhibitions 567 Table A2 New South Wales Commissioners for the Sydney International Exhibition, 1879 577 Table A3 Biographical information for the New South Wales Commissioners, 1879 579 Table A4 Organisations represented by the New South Wales Commissioners, 1879 587 Table A5 New South Wales Commissioners for the Melbourne Centennial International Exhibition, 1888 593 Table A6 Biographical information for the New South Wales Commissioners, 1888 601 Appendix B Victorian Commissioners for the International Exhibitions 603 Table B1 Victorian Men Active in the C19th International Exhibitions 605 Table B2 Victorian Commissioners for the Melbourne International Exhibition, 1880 611 Table B3 Biographical information for the Victorian Commissioners, 1880 613 Table B4 Organisations represented by the Victorian Commissioners, 1880 621 Table B5 Victorian Commissioners for the Melbourne Centennial International Exhibition, 1888 627 Table B6 Biographical information for the Victorian Commissioners, 1888 633 Appendix C Architectural Drawings Exhibited by the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1879 and 1880 637 ix List of Illustrations 1. The central scene of the east frieze of the Parthenon (438-432 BC) depicts the procession of the Great Panathenaic Festival, held in Athens every four years. © The Trustees of the British Museum 31 2. The procession was accompanied by a cavalcade. The west frieze of the Parthenon depicts the horsemen, who have been moving at some speed, reining back to avoid riding off the edge of the frieze. © The Trustees of the British Museum 31 3. Melbourne Public Library, c. 1875. La Trobe Picture Collection, State Library of Victoria 77 4. James Barnet’s unrealised design for extensions to the Australian Museum in Sydney. NSW Government Architect 77 5. Opposing approaches to education… Professor Archibald Liversidge (second from left, front row) and Professor Charles