#LANGUAGEMIXING ON TWITTER _______________________________________ A Dissertation presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School at the University of Missouri-Columbia _______________________________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy _____________________________________________________ by Taoues Hadour Dr. Matthew Gordon, Dissertation Supervisor Dr. Mary Jo Muratore, Dissertation Supervisor MAY 2019 The undersigned, appointed by the dean of the Graduate School, have examined the dissertation entitled #LANGUAGEMIXING ON TWITTER presented by Taoues Hadour, a candidate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, and hereby certify that, in their opinion, it is worthy of acceptance. _______________________________________________________ Professor Matthew Gordon _______________________________________________________ Professor Mary Jo Muratore _______________________________________________________ Professor Daniel Sipe _______________________________________________________ Professor Megan Moore _______________________________________________________ Professor Mike Kearney Je dédie tout d’abord cette thèse à ma très chère Flore qui m’a donné l’envie de faire un doctorat en linguistique française. Sa sagesse, sa bonne humeur ainsi que ses conseils ont rendu mon experience à l’université du Missouri inoubliable. Ma famille également Djoher, Tarik et surtout ma mère, mon modèle, qui m’a toujours soutenu et sans qui je ne serai pas là aujourd’hui. Maman c’est grâce à toi que j’ai pu en arriver là! And finally, my amazing partner Jared. Thank you for your patience and your support throughout this journey! ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First, I would like to thank my beloved mentor Dr. Flore Zéphir who both motivated me and guided me throughout my graduate career. Although no longer with us, Flore will continue to inspire me by her kindness and her dedication to research and teaching. I would like to thank my co-advisor Dr. Mary Jo Muratore who agreed to take on this role. I admire her professionalism and I truly appreciate the time she contributed to my dissertation. I will be forever grateful. In addition, I would like to thank Dr. Matt Gordon for his willingness to be my co-advisor as well. His expertise, guidance, and constructive feedback made my dissertation a work of which I am very proud. A special thanks as well to Dr. Mike Kearny who generously agreed to help me collect the data for this study. This work would not have been possible without him. My appreciation also extends to the other committee members Dr. Daniel Sipe and Dr. Megan Moore who took the time to read my work and supported me throughout my time at MU. TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... ii Abstract .......................................................................................................................... vi Chapter 1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background Information ........................................................................................ 2 1.2 What is Twitter? .................................................................................................... 4 1.3 Objective and Research Questions ......................................................................... 5 1.4 Overview of Study .................................................................................................. 7 Chapter 2 Linguistic Ecology of France ............................................................................. 9 2.1 French Language Policies ....................................................................................... 9 2.2 Influence of English .............................................................................................. 12 2.3 Current Attitudes towards Anglicims.................................................................... 15 Chapter 3 Review of Literature ...................................................................................... 25 3.1 Code-Switching Literature .................................................................................... 25 3.1.1 Grammatical Theories ................................................................................... 25 3.1.2 Pragmatics of CS............................................................................................ 28 3.2 Internet Language ................................................................................................ 31 3.2.1 Sociolinguistic Research in CMC .................................................................... 33 3.2.2 Code-Switching in Social Media ..................................................................... 34 3.2.2.1 Previous Linguistic Research in Social Media .......................................... 35 3.2.2.2 Large Scale Studies on CS on Twitter ...................................................... 37 Chapter 4 Methodology ................................................................................................. 40 4.1 Data collection ..................................................................................................... 40 4.2 Analytical Framework .......................................................................................... 43 4.2.1 Types of CS Analysis ...................................................................................... 44 4.2.2 Topic Analysis ................................................................................................ 44 4.2.3 Discourse Function Analysis .......................................................................... 47 4.2.4 Hashtag Analysis ........................................................................................... 49 Chapter 5 Types of Code-Switching Analysis .................................................................. 55 5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 55 5.2 Findings ............................................................................................................... 55 5.2.1 Intra-Sentential Switching ............................................................................. 56 5.2.2 Inter-Sentential Switching ............................................................................. 58 4.2.3 Tag Switching ................................................................................................ 60 5.3 Discussion ............................................................................................................ 63 Chapter 6 Topic Analysis ................................................................................................ 69 6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 69 6.2 Findings ............................................................................................................... 70 6.2.1 Entertainment ............................................................................................... 71 6.2.2 Social Media .................................................................................................. 76 6.2.3 Politics / News............................................................................................... 78 6.2.4 Fashion / Makeup ......................................................................................... 82 6.2.5 Sports............................................................................................................ 84 6.2.6 Innovation / Technology ............................................................................... 87 6.2.7 Sex / Pornography ......................................................................................... 89 6.2.8 Events ........................................................................................................... 91 6.2.9 Business ........................................................................................................ 93 6.3 Discussion ............................................................................................................ 96 Chapter 7 Discourse Function Analysis......................................................................... 100 7.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 100 7.2 Findings ............................................................................................................. 100 7.2.1 Feelings ....................................................................................................... 101 7.2.2 Advertising .................................................................................................. 105 7.2.3 Quotations .................................................................................................. 107 7.2.4 Discourse Markers ...................................................................................... 109 7.2.5 Phatic Expressions ....................................................................................... 110 7.2.6 Translations ................................................................................................ 111 7.3 Discussion .......................................................................................................... 112 Chapter 8 Hashtag Analysis.........................................................................................