1 Settlement Experiences of Iranian Migrants on Humanitarian and Non-Humanitarian Visas in Australia laya matindoost DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2018 School of Communication and Arts 2 Abstract There are many Iranians who have settled in Australia. This thesis explored the ways in which Iranian migrants who settled in Australia under humanitarian and non-humanitarian migration streams overcame the challenges of settling in a new society. Specifically, the study investigated: a) the barriers the migrants faced and factors that affected their integration into or disengagement from the host country; b) the impact their settlement had on their identity; c) the major challenges the Iranian migrants faced in the employment context; d) and the demographic variables that impacted the settlement experiences of the migrants. The primary theoretical frameworks which guided this study were: a) Berry’s acculturation model (1997); b) Kim’s (2001) integrative theory of communication and cross-cultural adaptation; c) Tajfel’s social identity theory (Tajfel, 1981, 1982); and d) self-categorization theory (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & Wetherell, 1987). Data for the study were gathered qualitatively via semi-structured interviews with 40 Iranian migrants on humanitarian visas (10 men and 10 women) and non-humanitarian visas (10 men and 10 women) who were recruited via snowball sampling. The interviews were transcribed and analysed thematically. The key themes which emerged from the narratives were: a) barriers and facilitators to initial settlement; b) perceived discrimination; c) acculturation strategies; d) identity; e) employment; and f) impact of demographic variables on settlement. The key findings of the study showed that integration was the most preferred acculturation strategy adopted by the migrants. These migrants believed in maintaining cultural balance between their heritage culture and their host society’s culture as a means of integrating into their host country. However, their acculturation orientation and strategy also varied depending on different domains and spheres of life. This meant therefore that they adopted ‘selective adaptation’ (Navas, García, Sánchez, Rojas, Pumares, & Fernández, 2005). 3 Iranian migrants in this study were confronted with various challenges in the employment context including non-recognition of their credentials, lack of local experience/networking and connections, lengthy transition into the labour market, downward mobility, and loss of occupational status. Various factors such as age, gender, length of stay, city of origin, education level, and language proficiency played a role in the experiences of the migrants. The younger migrants felt their settlement and acculturation processes were more challenging. While gender negatively impacted on the labour market participation and integration of female migrants of both cohort with more women reported being unemployed, the egalitarian context of Australia gave more freedom and safety to these female migrants and thus positively impacted these individuals. Lack of English language proficiency not only impacted on the labour market participation of the humanitarian visa holders but also limited their social interactions with the host nationals. The findings also showed that migration impacted on the migrants’ religious identity, leading some of them to modify or conceal their religious identity as a result of settling in Australia. The secular and egalitarian context of Australia, religious freedom, and unrestricted access to resources helped these migrants to adopt a more liberal stance on their religious beliefs. While the Christian and Baha’i Iranians in this study had strong attachment to their religions, some migrants in the Muslim cohort concealed their religious identity so as to reduce the impact of discrimination. Finally, this study made key contributions to migrant settlement studies and provided insights into migrants’ lives post-migration. In this context, this research adds to the limited body of literature on immigration, settlement, and acculturation experiences of Iranian migrants in Australia. Further, this study contributes to the body of knowledge of refugee resettlement in Australia. The findings from this study will also inform policies and the settlement services. 4 Declaration by author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, financial support and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my higher degree by research candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis and have sought permission from co- authors for any jointly authored works included in the thesis. 5 Publications included in this thesis “No publications included”. 6 Submitted manuscripts included in the thesis “No manuscripts submitted for publication” Other publications during candidature Matindoost, L. (2015) Media representation of Muslim Youth. Media Development Journal.3, 33-36. Contributions by others to the thesis “No contribution by others” 7 Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree “None”. Research Involving Human or Animal Subjects Ethical approval sought from the school of Communication and Arts Application Number: 2015013 8 Acknowledgements I am indebted to many people who have provided me with support and guidance throughout my doctoral study. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisors Dr Levi Obijiofor and Dr Aparna Hebbani for their continuous support and immense knowledge. Their guidance has helped me tremendously throughout my doctoral study for they have not only been my mentors but have given me the inspiration and encouragement to move ahead and constantly reminded me that “Sky is the limit”. I am extremely grateful for their valuable insights and constructive comments. I also remain indebted to them for their great support and understanding during this journey. I am forever grateful for their great support and knowledge that not only helped me to expand my research capabilities but gave me the determination that I needed to pursue my goal. I am deeply grateful to my family. I am indebted beyond words to my husband and my six- year-old daughter for all the sacrifices they have made for me to pursue my goal. I am grateful to my daughter that while being away from family and her father during this long journey so that I would achieve my goal, she reminded me every day that I need to be “strong”. Undertaking a PhD research would have not been possible without their immense help and support. I am forever grateful for that in my life. Hopefully, this will teach my daughter that resilience and determination of a woman is the stepping stone to her success and that nothing can ever stop her from reaching her goals. I would also like to acknowledge the Australian Government Postgraduate Award for providing me with a living allowance scholarship. I am honoured to be a recipient of Betty Patterson Fellowship from Fellowship Fund Inc. (FFI). My heartfelt gratitude to the FFI that afforded me the opportunity to work toward my study. This study could not have been possible without 9 research and scholarship support from the Australian Government, University of Queensland, and Fellowship Fund Inc. Special thanks to the participants of this study for sharing their time and stories and making the completion of this research possible. I would also like to extend my thanks to my fellow PhD colleagues for their continuous support during the course of my PhD research. 10 Financial support This research was supported by an Australian Government Postgraduate Award and Betty Patterson Fellowship by the Fellowship Fund Inc. 11 Keywords Australia, Iran, refugees, non-humanitarian, settlement, acculturation, integration, employment, cross-cultural adaptation Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classifications (ANZSRC) ANZSRC code: 200208, Migrant Cultural Studies, 80% ANZSRC code: 200209, Multicultural, Intercultural and Cross-cultural Studies, 20% Fields of Research (FoR) Classification FoR code: 2001, Communication Studies, 20% FoR code: 2002,