i TRANSFORMATION OF GENDER POWER RELATIONS IN IGEMBE CENTRAL, MERU COUNTY, KENYA BETWEEN 1895 AND 2010 MARANYA ZIPPORAH NKIROTE C50/NYI/CE/26860/2013 A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN HISTORY OF KENYATTA UNIVERSITY FEBRUARY, 2020 ii DECLARATION This thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other University or for any other award. Sign____________________________Date__________________________ Maranya Zipporah Nkirote C50/NYI/CE/26860/2013 SUPERVISORS We confirm that the work reported in this thesis was carried out by the candidate under our supervision. Sign____________________________Date__________________________ Dr. Lazarus Ngari Department of History, Archaeology and Political Studies Kenyatta University Sign____________________________Date__________________________ Dr.Wafula Wekesa Department of History, Archaeology and Political Studies Kenyatta University iii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my parents Mr. and Mrs. Jason Maranya, my husband David Kihara and our children Benjamin Karani and Dorcas Waruguru. It is also dedicated to all who work in pursuit of knowledge. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I wish to acknowledge the immense support and firm commitment of my supervisors Dr. Lazarus Ngari and Dr. Wekesa Wafula in the completion of this thesis. The doctors helped me to scale the walls with courage. God bless them. I also wish to sincerely thank the members of staff in the department of history, archaeology and political studies for their continued help in making this time a very worthwhile and stimulating experience. My deepest appreciation goes to my husband David Kihara for encouraging me to go on and study when I had almost given up, for putting up with my absence by gracefully taking a dual parental role for our children and for encouraging me on daily basis. I am highly indebted to my friends and classmates for their intellectual discussions, enquiring about the course and encouraging me to give it a try. Their presence and concern for my welfare enabled me to ride over the waves of tiredness. I would also like to express my utmost gratitude to all whom in one way or another made it possible for me to focus on the study undistracted. These include our children Benjamin and Dorcas for taking my absence positively. I commend Joseph Kimathi, Mercy Mwika, Charles Kaimenyi, Dr.Laria, Limiri Elong’i and Patrick Chabari for their inputs which made it possible for the successful completion of the study. All these people remain a valuable facet of my life. I can only say to them; Asante sana (Thank you very much). Above all I glorify the Almighty God, most holy and all-knowing for giving me the strength to successfully complete this study. v TABLE OF CONTENT DECLARATION.......................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION............................................................................................................ iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .......................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENT ............................................................................................... v LISTS OF TABLES .................................................................................................... ix LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .................................................. xi OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS ............................................... xii ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. xiii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 1 1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................ 3 1.3 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................... 4 1.4 Objectives of the Study ........................................................................................... 4 1.5 Research Questions ................................................................................................. 5 1.6 Research Premises .................................................................................................. 5 1 .7 Justification and Significance of the Study ............................................................ 5 1.8 Scope and Limitations............................................................................................. 6 1.9 Literature Review.................................................................................................... 7 1.9.1 Summary of the Gaps.............................................................................. 12 1.10 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................ 12 1.11 Methodology ........................................................................................................ 14 1.11.1 Research Design.................................................................................... 14 1.11.2 Research Site ......................................................................................... 14 vi 1.11.3 Target Population .................................................................................. 14 1.11.4 Sampling Techniques ............................................................................ 15 1.11.5 Sample Size ........................................................................................... 15 1.11.6 Research Instruments ............................................................................ 15 1.11.7 Question Guides .................................................................................... 16 1.11.8 Interview Schedules .............................................................................. 16 1.11.9 Data Collection Techniques .................................................................. 16 1.11.10 Secondary Data ................................................................................... 16 1.11.11 Primary Data ....................................................................................... 17 1.11.12 Data Analysis ...................................................................................... 17 1.11.13 Logistical and Ethical Considerations ................................................ 17 CHAPTER TWO: THE CONCEPT OF POWER RELATIONS BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN AMONG THE AMERU OF IGEMBE UP TO 1895 ......... 19 2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 19 2.1 Location and History of Meru People .................................................................... 19 2.2 Division of Labour ................................................................................................. 20 2.3 Property Inheritance ............................................................................................... 28 2.4 Initiation ................................................................................................................. 31 2.5 Elderhood ............................................................................................................... 35 2.6 Religion .................................................................................................................. 36 2.7 Patriarchal Society ................................................................................................. 38 2.8 Summary and Conclusions .................................................................................... 39 CHAPTER THREE: CHANGE AND CONTINUITY IN GENDER POWER RELATIONS IN IGEMBE; 1895- 1963 .................................................................. 40 3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 40 vii 3.1 Colonial Rule; 1895-1963 ...................................................................................... 40 3.2 Christianity; 1895- 1963 ........................................................................................ 44 3.3 Mau Mau Uprising; 1895-1963 ............................................................................. 46 3.4 Education; 1895 -1963 ........................................................................................... 47 3.5 Migration; 1895-1963 ............................................................................................ 49 3.6 Summary and Conclusion ...................................................................................... 49 CHAPTER FOUR: CHANGE AND CONTINUITY IN GENDER POWER RELATIONS; 1963-2010 .......................................................................................... 52 4.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 52 4.1 Female Labour Force; 1963-2010 .......................................................................... 52 4.2 Education; 1963 to 2010 .......................................................................................