Anzac Intelligence — An examination of the role of intelligence in the planning and conduct of the AIF’s battles during the First World War. Jonathan Passlow A thesis in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Humanities and Social Sciences Faculty of History June 2015 ORIGINALITY STATEMENT I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. 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Date ......8 September 2015.......................................................... Table of contents Page Acknowledgements v Abbreviations and symbols vi List of images and maps viii Introduction 1 Part 1 Intelligence organisations, structures and training Chapter 1. Pre-war military intelligence doctrine and the organisation of intelligence in the British Army 14 Chapter 2. ANZAC and Australian Corps Intelligence: 1915 to 1918 37 Part 2 Intelligence gathered using technical means Chapter 3. Aerial reconnaissance and aerial photography 68 Chapter 4. Topographic intelligence 103 Chapter 5. Artillery intelligence 141 Chapter 6. Captured documents and enemy material 185 Chapter 7. Wireless intelligence, signals intercept and communications deception 212 Part 3 Intelligence gathered using human means Chapter 8. Human intelligence and counter-espionage operations 243 Chapter 9. Trench raids 266 Chapter 10. Patrolling, reconnaissance, and observation 301 Chapter 11. Prisoners 324 Chapter 12. Intelligence and battle planning in 1918: An Australian narrative 360 Conclusion 398 iii Appendix 1. British military intelligence organisations in 1914 398 Appendix 2. British military intelligence organisations in 1914 406 Bibliography 412 iv Acknowledgements This project had its genesis in a desire to undertake some more study and a conversation with Jeff Grey. Intelligence has always been a fascinating subject for me and I wanted to study it in more detail. I approached Jeff to ask his advice, and suggested looking at intelligence and the role it played in during Australia’s battles in the Second World War. It was Jeff who suggested the First World War. When I queried whether there was enough material to write about, he challenged me to take a look. Little did I know how much intelligence was available during the First World War or how central it was to military doctrine at the time the war began. I had almost no concept that many of the different forms of intelligence which modern militaries take for granted had their origins just before or during the First World War. There is little that has been written about intelligence during the First World War and I hope this thesis adds to that small body of work. It would not have been possible to complete this thesis without the support and assistance of so many people. First and foremost are my family. Catherine, I would like to acknowledge your love, support, patience and forbearance over the last four years. My daughters, Hannah and Emily, who thought the idea of dad going ‘back to school’ a great laugh. Remember, you are never too old to keep learning. On the academic side of the house, I would like to acknowledge Jeff Grey, who has been along since the start of this journey and who has done his best to keep me on the straight and narrow. My thanks also to Peter Stanley, who joined in somewhat later, but who has still offered valuable advice. Also to Jim Beach, who offered advice and suggestions as I was just getting started. I’d also like to thank the staff at the research centre at the Australian War Memorial, who ably assisted me while I combed through operational records looking for snippets of information. Also the staff at the National Archive in the UK, the UK National Army Museum, the Imperial War Museum, and the Royal United Service Institute. Not to mention the many smaller museums I hunted through looking for material to support my thesis. To Markus for reading my thesis and providing sage advice. Thanks also to Duncan Beard for his work in copy editing the final draft. A special thanks to Chris, Tiff, Jake and Ava for letting me sleep on their sofa bed and share their home on my research trips to the UK, and to my work colleagues who graciously accepted my absences as I pursued my studies. Finally, to all those who I may have missed, please accept my thanks for all your assistance and encouragement. v Abbreviations and symbols 18-Pdr — quick firing 18-pounder field gun 4.5” — quick firing 4.5-inch field howitzer 6” — breech loading 6-inch siege howitzer 60-Pdr — breech loading 60-pounder field gun 8” — breech loading 8-inch howitzer 9.2” — breech loading 9.2-inch siege howitzer AFC — Australian Flying Corps AIC — Australian Intelligence Corps AIF — Australian Imperial Force ANZAC — Australian and New Zealand Army Corps AWM — Australian War Memorial Bn — Battalion Bde — Brigade BEF — British Expeditionary Force CBSO — Counter Battery Staff Officer CEF — Canadian Expeditionary Force CGS — Chief of General Staff Corps Troops — Troops allocated under the control of a Corps Headquarters, usually specialists resources such as aircraft, heavy artillery, tanks and supply CMF — Commonwealth Military Forces Div — Division DMI — Director of Military Intelligence EPW – Enemy Prisoner of War FOO — Forward Observation Officer vi FSC — Field Survey Company FSR — Field Service Regulations GHQ — General Headquarters GSO1 — General Staff Officer Grade 1 (Lieutenant Colonel) GSO2 — General Staff Officer Grade 2 (Major) GSO3 — General Staff Officer Grade 3 (Captain) HE — High Explosive IGS — Imperial General Staff IWM — Imperial War Museum MEF — Mediterranean Expeditionary Force NID — Naval Intelligence Department POW — Prisoner of War RAF — Royal Air Force RE — Royal Engineers RFA — Royal Field Artillery RFC — Royal Flying Corps RGA — Royal Garrison Artillery RHA — Royal Horse Artillery RNAS — Royal Naval Air Service vii List of images and maps Figure 1 — Copy of Army Form W.3092. p.52. Figure 2 — A diagram showing the layout of the Hindenburg Line defences near Bullecourt. p.94. Figure 3 — Map of Pozières Village. p.120. Figure 4 — Diagram of a house alongside the Albert-Bapaume Road in Pozières. p.121. Figure 5 — Army Form W.3363: Report on new pattern shell. p.201. Figure 6 — Report on German yellow cross gas shell fuse, March 1918. p.208. Figure 7 — A sketch showing the deployment of jamming sets. p.217. Figure 8 — Map showing the planned XI Corps attack at Fromelles. p.283. Figure 9 — A satirical look at the role of observers in the BEF printed in a trench newspaper. p.308. Figure 10 — An Australian patrol map from the Armentières Sector, June 1916. p.317. Figure 11 — Form for interrogation of prisoners, Appendix No. J36. p.344. Figure 12 — Map showing the Hindenburg Line defences at Bellicourt. p.394. viii Introduction Military intelligence is essentially the source from which all military activity is actuated. It is on the knowledge of the military dispositions that any operation of war is based. Intelligence is concerned in every phase of attack and defence — from the action of a reconnoitering patrol in the fighting front to the defence of ammunition factories in the heart of a seemingly peaceful country.1 Intelligence is more than just information. Information is data that has been collected; intelligence is the product resulting from relating that information to an actual or proposed area of operations. Intelligence provides commanders with knowledge and understanding of the battlefield on which they must fight; it provides warnings about the development of hostilities and an understanding of the capabilities and intent of adversaries. Intelligence also provides an insight into friendly vulnerabilities. The British Army understood intelligence to be a fundamental element in the planning and conduct of operations, an essential factor for success in war.2 Like all of the British Empire Armies, the Australian Imperial Force’s (AIF) early understanding of the importance of intelligence was drawn from its British Army roots.