THE 1794 WRECK OF THE TEH SAIL, CAYMAN ISLANDS, BRITISH WEST INDIES: A HISTORICAL STUDY AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY Volume I A Dissertation by MARGARET ELAINE LESHIKAR Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY December 1993 Major Subject: Anthropology © 1993 MARGARET ELAINE LESHIKAR ALL RIGHTS RESERVED THE 1794 WRECK OF THE TEN SAIL CAYMAN ISLANDS, BRITISH WEST INDIES: A HISTORICAL STUDY AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY Volume I A Dissertation by MARGARET ELAINE LESHIKAR Submitted to Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved as to style and content by: George\F. Bass Kevii/ J. Crisman (Co-Chair or*Committee) (Co-Chair of Committee) C'C. u C . /,pl' (~'C /'C ■L. Hamilton /Sylvia A.,/Grider (Member) (Member) December 1993 Maj or Subj ect: Anthropology Ill ABSTRACT The 1794 Wreck of the Ten Sail, Cayman Islands, British West Indies: A Historical Study and Archaeological Survey. (December 1993) Margaret Elaine Leshikar, B.F.A., University of Texas; M.A., University of Texas Co-Chairs of Advisory Committee: Dr. George F. Bass Dr. Kevin J. Crisman The French Revolution had begun in 1789 and by 1793 Britain and France were engaged in war. Hostilities extended to their world-wide possessions, and to the high seas where each nation strived to capture the other's naval and merchant ships as prizes. In November 1793, the French Navy's 12-pounder frigate 1'Inconstante was captured off the French West Indian colony of St. Domingue, taken to Jamaica and sold into His Majesty's Service as the Convert. The Royal Navy frigate was to escort and protect a produce-laden convoy of 55 merchantmen from Jamaica to ports in Britain; three vessels bound for America would join them. The greatest danger to the fleet, however, was not to be the French, for on 8 February 1794 the Convert, together with nine of the merchant ships, wrecked on the windward reefs of Grand Cayman. This dissertation investigates the history and archaeology of the shipwreck disaster which has survived in Cayman Islands folklore as the legend of the Wreck of the Ten Sail. But current research indicates that the incident has historical significance that exceeds the bounds of Cayman's national attention. It is tied to the history of Britain and France in the French Revolutionary Period, and is evidence of the wide geographical distribution of European war and trade at the close of the eighteenth century. This study is a presentation of history, archaeology and folklore. Research entailed archival work in Jamaica, Britain and France; archaeological survey and mapping of shipwreck sites scattered IV over the reefs of Grand Cayman's East End; and oral history interviews with older Caymanians whose parents and grandparents told them the story of the Wreck of the Ten Sail. Results of the investigation include a better understanding of the historical and geographical context of the shipwreck disaster; a more thorough and accurate account of the event; specific knowledge of the locations and nature of archaeological remains; recovery, conservation, and analysis of artifacts; and an awareness of the enduring effects of the Wreck of the Ten Sail on the Cayman Islands. V For All the Volunteers VI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My sincere appreciation is extended to all the people and organizations who contributed to the research and writing of this dissertation. Special thanks go to the following: My committee members, Co-Chair George F. Bass for his guidance, encouragement and faith in me; Co-Chair Kevin J. Crisman for tirelessly and generously sharing his seafaring knowledge; Sylvia A. Grider for expanding my anthropological horizons; Donny L. Hamilton for years of practical archaeology instruction and for Port Royal; Harry J. Shafer for a solid foundation in archaeological methods and theory; and Graduate Council Representative David A. Brooks for his keen interest and significant oceanographic contributions to this dissertation. J. Richard Steffy, Frederick van Doominck, Jr. and Fred Hocker for teaching me about ships; Vaughn M. Bryant, Jr. for his leadership in the Department of Anthropology; the students, faculty and staff of the Department of Anthropology and the Nautical Archaeology Program at Texas A&M University; and the Texas A&M University College of Liberal Arts, for a generous Dissertation Award. Anita Ebanks for her confidence and courage to share the vision; the Cayman Islands National Museum, Museum Board and Portfolio of Culture for their support, and all of the National Museum staff for their patience, encouragement and assistance; Philip Pedley and the staff of the Cayman Islands National Archive for archival guidance and additional significant help; and the Cayman Islands Government for support and permission to conduct archaeological work on the seabed. Roger Smith, the Institute of Nautical Archaeology and the 1980 Cayman Islands Project field crew for an introduction to shipwrecks of the Cayman Islands; and Charles Beeker and Indiana University for sharing data gathered during their investigations. Those who shared specialized knowledge, who assisted in archival research and who provided copies of archival records or facilitated VI1 their use: Jean Boudriot, David H. Roberts and David R. MacGregor; Marc Fardet and Christian Carriere of the Archives du Port de Rochefort, Pierre Waksman and le contre-amiral Kessler of the Ministere de la Defense, Service Historique de la Marine, Gerard Ermisse and Florence Clavaud of the Archives Nationales, Archives de France, in France; David Lyon, Ian MacKenzie, David Taylor, Karen Peart, Keith Percival, David Topliss and additional staff of the National Maritime Museum, Nick Forbes of the Public Record Office, Alan Borthwick of the Scottish Record Office, R.H. Searle and Bridget Spiers of Whitehall Library, Melvyn Barnes and D.T. Barriskill of the Guildhall Library, Barbara Jones of Lloyd's Register of Shipping, P.L. Dickinson of the College of Arms, J.S. Davis of the Kent Family History Society, Patricia Rowsby and L. Richardson of the Kent County Archives, Janice Burr of Conway Maritime Press, the staff of the British Library and L.S. Lawford, in the United Kingdom; Elizabeth Williams and the staff of the Jamaica Archives, and John A. Aarons and the staff of the National Library of Jamaica, in Jamaica; Bill Mailer, Annick Tacq- Lietaer, Bernard Lietaer, Geraldine Duckworth and Anton Duckworth, in the Cayman Islands; Donald Dyal, Terry Bridges and Shawn Carlson of the Special Collections of the Sterling C. Evans Library at Texas A&M University, Keith L. Seitter of the American Meteorological Society, Julie A. Hedlund of the American Geophysical Union, Stephen R. Bilicki, John Broadwater, Robert L. Molinari and Robert F. Marx, in the United States. The dedicated, versatile and talented survey crew who conducted underwater archaeological fieldwork: Jeanne Masters, Helene Schindler, Arthur Schindler, Mike Guderian, Dennis Denton, and Keith Neale, Patrick Rogers and Cebert McLaughlin of Tortuga Divers. Other skilled individuals who participated in archaeological research and documentation: Debra Bames-Tabora, Michael Hislop, Bill Tennent and Mary Peever of the Cayman Islands National Museum; the Vlll staff of the Cayman Islands Natural Resources Unit; Duncan McCleod, George Sparling, Monica Gore, William Keegan, Anne Stokes, Reed Toomey, Bruce Craig, Don Scott, Theresa Grundy and Michael Grundy. Those who provided data about and access to cannons previously recovered from the French Cannon Site: Pat Smith, Earl Smith, Kendal Massias, Dawson Whittaker, Brian Butler, Tom Isaacs, Dale Banks, Adrian Briggs, Kent Eldemire and the National Trust for the Cayman Islands. Those who donated equipment or who provided support services for archaeological research: Morritts Tortuga Club, Atlantis Research Submersibles, Keith Moorehead and the yacht Platinum. Those who provided specialized analysis of archaeological materials: J. Philip Dering of the Palynology Laboratory and Wayne Ahr of the Department of Geology at Texas A&M University; and Michael Savarese, Charles Vitaliano, Clifford Ambers and Rebecca Robinson of the Department of Geological Sciences at Indiana University. Those who assisted or participated in oral history research: Heather McLaughlin, Arthurlyn Pedley, Vemicia Watler, Phoebe Watler Spence, Marshall Watler, Mary Antoinette Wood Levy, Edison Jackson, Weddy Connolly and the Cayman Islands Memory Bank. Roger Craig for generously giving his time, and for unsurpassed dedication and creativity in the preparation of maps, illustrations and photographs; Andrew Griffin for his professional archival advice and insightful editorial comments on the manuscript; Claudia LeDoux for her wisdom and for facilitating communications throughout this endeavor; Suzie Lidstone, Clyde Reese, Becky Jobling and Mike Fitzgerald for their timely assistance; Ingrid Fulda, Henry Fulda, Hera Konstantinou and Joe Cozzi for sharing their homes; Dennis Denton, my husband, for excellent photography, skilled assistance in the field and for patience during my graduate school days; and for many reasons, my parents. 1 November 1993 MEL IX TABLE OF CONTENTS Volume I Page ABSTRACT iii DEDICATION v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ix LIST OF FIGURES xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xvii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1 Historical Overview 1 Previous Research 7 Current Objectives 8 Research Methods 8 Archival Research 8