- Enika Ngongo - Between1914and1917,the Force Publique, theBelgiancolonial army,tookpartintheFirstWorldWar.Firstindefensiveactionsin collaboration with French and British forces in Cameroon and in Rhodesia, then with offensive campaigns in German East Africa against the German troops of Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck. Theirintentwastoexchangetheirterritorialconquestsagainstparts ofPortugueseterritoryonthebankoftheCongoRiver,andthusgain accesstotheIndianOcean.Eventhoughitdidnotwork,theForce Publique realisedcrucialvictoriesinTabora(1916)andinMahenge (1917).Ifthesevictories,aswellastheroleofthecolonialtroops duringWorldWar I,haveofferedsomeinterestingstudies,yetthe difculties among Congolese soldiers and indigenous auxiliaries (portersandboys)remainuntold.Duringthesemilitarycampaigns, thousandsofCongolesemenwereindeedrecruitedassoldiersfrom everypartofthecolony,whileabout260,000indigenousauxiliaries wererecruitedas porters, to transportequipmentessentialfor the successofmilitaryoperations.Alongsidethem,womenandchildren served as the logistical backbone of the troops, carrying soldiers equipment and supplies, gathering food and water, cooking and doingthelaundry.Thelivingconditionswererenderedarduousby thehugemobilitydemandedbythewar.Weakenedbyinsufcient food,aharshclimate,thelackofrestortheunsuitabilityofhygiene and medicalcare, many porters died from unhealthy conditions. Men became sick rather than die ghting.After the war, despite thecrucialroletheyplayedandtheharshconditionstheyendured, indigenous soldiers and porters, living or dead, were forgotten and disregarded to a certain extent by the Belgian State. If they were granted multiple expressions of appreciation and gratitude, theywerenotonthenationalagenda. MajorAbbé[sic.], UsingBelgianarchivalmaterial, ofcialreports, ThisisthelastletterIwriteyou.Iwillinform published memoirs, photographs and some all the Congolese people who fought in sourcesoforaltraditionthathadbeenreported, Congo.WedidnotgotoWarforCongo,but suchasschoolsongs,thisessay reconsidersthe forBelgium.TheCongolesepeopleareafraid crucial part played by Congolese troops and tocomplain,butasIsawdeathclosely,Iam indigenous auxiliaries during the Great War in entitledtoclaimmydue.IfIdonotgetposi- Africa,andwhatmighthavebeentheireveryday tiveresponse,Iwillgofurther 1. experiences 3.Althoughtheseexperiencesremain difculttoassessduetoalackofprimarysources InNovember1925,PhilippeMolangi,aCongo- andtestimonieswrittenbyindigenouspeopleor lese veteran of the Bas-Congo Company, sent a registeredbyateamofresearchers,thecrossing lettertoMajorLabbeye,formermilitarydelegate of various sources considered in the colonial to the Ministry of Colonies, in which he com- contextoftheirproductionhighlightsaseriesof plained that he had not received his due for elementshithertounknown.Italsoconsidersthe hisparticipationintheAfricancampaignsofthe recognition shown to them by colonial author- First World War and that he had looked death ities and by the Belgian State during and after in the face. From spring 1916 to winter 1917, the GreatWar, byanalysing thestates acknow- theBelgiancolonialtroops, the Force Publique, ledgmentoftheinvolvementoftheAfricanpart conductedtwomajorcampaignsinGermanEast of the Force Publique 4. Africa:theBattleofTaboraandtheMahenge Campaign.Duringthesecampaigns,wherethe use of heavy artillery was not possible in the large battleelds, the main asset of the bellig- erents were highly mobile troops ofindigenous AsEuropewasslidingtowardswarinJuly1914, soldiers, alongside with porters 2. Yet, although Belgium5 proposed a restatement of the neu- theywereessentialtothesuccessofBelgianand tralityofall thecoloniesinthe CongoBasinto AlliedmilitaryoperationsonAfricansoil,andin the British, French and German governments, spiteofthehugenumberofdeathsamongthem, in accordance withArticle 11 of theTreaty of very little has been written about them, about Berlin. Belgium, wishing at all costs to avoid their living conditions duringtheWar, orabout anextensionoftheconict ontheAfricansoil, the recognition of the Belgian government in thatcouldhaveendangereditscolonialposses- the post-war period the two aspects veteran sion, reiterated its request several times until PhilippeMolangicomplainedaboutin1925. 8 August, when the British bombed the radio 1. MajorAbbé[sic.],Cestladernièrelettrequejevousécris:jevaisminformeràtouslesCongolaisquiontfaitlaguerre auCongo.NousnavonspasfaitlaguerrepourleCongo,nouslavonsfait[e]pourlaBelgique.LesCongolaisontpeur deréclamermaismoiayantvulamortdeprès,jesuise ndroitderéclamer[c]equimerevient;sijenereçoispasuneréponse favorablejemadresseraiplusloin.[]PhilippeMolangitoM ajorLabbeye,20/11/1921(FederalPublicServiceForeignAffairs (FPSFA),AfricanArchives(AA),FP799) 2. See Lucas c atheR ine, Loopgraven in Afrika (1914-1918). De vergeten oorlog van de Congolezen tegen de Duitsers, Berchem,2013. 3. UnlikethepioneerworkofMelvinPageonMalawiansVeteransand,morerecently,theimportantworkbyMichelle MoydonGermanEastAfricansaskari (Africansoldier).SeeMeLvin Page,MalawiansandtheGreatWar :Oralhistoryin reconstructingAfricasRecentPast,inThe Oral History Review,no.8,1980,p.49-61,M eLvin Page,TheWarofThangata: Nya salandandtheEastAfricanCampaign,1914-1918,inJournal of African History,no.19,1978,p.87-100,andM icheLL e M oy d, Violent intermediaries. Africa n Soldiers, Conquest, and Everyday Colonialism in German East Africa,Ohio,2014. 4. Iexpressmythank stotheanonymousreviewersofthisarticleandtoDrBenoitHenrietfortheirvaluablesuggestions. 5. Atthattime,thediplomaticrelationsoftheBelgianCongowerehandledbytheBelgianForeignAffairs,whiletheMinistry ofColonieswasinchargeofadministeringthecolonialterritory.Bothworkedinclosepartnershipeventhoughtheydidnt sharetheexac tsamevisionontheinvolvementsofCongoduringthewar,asitappearsinthearchives. stationofDarEs-Salaam,thecapitalofGerman only waytostrengthenitsposition amongstthe EastAfrica.Thiseventresulted inGermanmili- very short list of powerful colonial nations and tary reactions inKenya and militaryoperations to obtain some territorialand nancial rewards against two Belgian outposts established on at the end of the war10 .The Belgians intended the easternborder of Congo: Mokolubu on15 touse any territorythat mightbeconqueredby August and Lukuga seven days later6. In quick them, according to the Right of Occupancy, as response, the Belgian State ordered the Force leverage in the negotiation of the future peace Publiquetotaketheoffensive,inordertodefend settlements11.As claimedby historian GuyVan- Congos territorial integrity7. On 28 August, themsche: the Belgian colonial possessions in Congowenttowar.IncollaborationwithFrench Africa gave another dimension to the countrys and British forces in Cameroon from 1914 to involvement in the Great War 12. A successful 1916, on Lake Tanganyika in a defensive campaign in Africa would have led Belgians to mobilisation on the eastern boarder of Congo, exchangetheirconquestsforpartsofPortuguese andinNorthernRhodesiabetween1914-1915, territory on the bank of the Congo River and, the Force Publique defeated the Schutztruppe of thus,gainaccesstotheIndianOcean. PaulvonLettow-Vorbeck 8. Unlike France or, to some extent, Great Britain, Subsequentlytothesesuccessfulcampaigns,the Belgiumclearlydecidedtoconcentrateitsstrength Belgiancolonialtroopstookupstationineastern onAfricanfronts.Besidesthethirty-twoCongolese CongotoplananassaultonGermanEastAfrica, peopleidentiedinGrietBrosensCongo aan den alongwiththeBritishforces 9.ForbothGreatBrit- Yser,noCongolesetroopfought ontheEuropean ain and Belgium, German East Africa was cru- fronts13.ThereluctancetoinvolveCongolesepeo- cial.Fortheformer, it was the missing element pleonEuropeanfrontsshouldberelatedtothefear fromtheCapetoCairo.Forthelatter,itwasthe that relations between Congolese and European 6. geo Rges deLP ie RRe,Tabora1916:delasy mboliquedelavictoire,inRevue belge d’histoire contemporaine,no.3-4, 2002 (32),p.354. 7. AbouttheForce Publique, see “Lisolo Na Bisu”, Notre histoire. Le soldat congolais de la Force Publique, 1885-1960 , Brussels,2010andbRyant shaW, “Force Publique, Force Unique” : The Military in the Belgian Congo 1914-1939, PhDThesisinHistory,UniversityofWisconsin,1984. 8. DuringtheFirstWorldWar,PaulvonLet tow-Vorbe ck(1870 -1964)wascommandingtheGermanmilitaryforcesin EastAfrica,whichincludedtwelvecompaniesofAskaritroops.Heremainedundefeate duntiltheGermanGovernment agreedtosignanarmistice.eck aRd M icheLs,Lettow-Vorbeck,Paul(von),in1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War,e d.byute danieL, P eteR gatReLL , oLiveR J anz, heath e R J one s, JennifeR keen e , a Lan kR aMeR , and biLL nass on , issuedbytheFreieUnive rsittBe rlin,Berlin2014-10 -08. 9. isid o Re nday WeL è nzie M and PaMPhi Le M abiaLa M antuba -ngo Ma (eds), Le Congo belge dans la Première Guerre mondiale (1914-1918),Paris,2015andMinistèredelaDéfensenationale,Les Campagnes coloniales belges, 1914-1918 ,Brussels,1927. 10. Jean nick vangansbeke, “Comrades in arms ?HetdiplomatiekesteekspeltussenBe lgiëenhetBritseEmpire inAfrika tijdensdeGroteOorlog,inRevue belge d’Histoire contemporaine,no.1-2,2008(38),p.131-158andRog eR W M. Louis , GreatBritainandtheAfricanPeacese ttlementof1919,inThe American H istorical Review,no.71,1966(3),p.887. 11. MinistryofColoniestoCharlesTombeur,LeHavre,25/03/1916(FederalPublicSer viceForeignAffairs,Diplomatic Archives,AF.1.2.).AbouttheRightofOccupancy,seea nnie dePeRchin ,LapetitejusticeauTogopendantlaPremièreGuerre mondiale ,inLe Juge et l’Outre-mer,no.6,2010,p.192-193. 12.