Western Michigan University ScholarWorks at WMU Dissertations Graduate College 1-2011 The Gendered Plight of Terror: Annexation and Exile in Latvia 1940-1950 Irene Elksnis Geisler Western Michigan University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations Part of the European History Commons Recommended Citation Geisler, Irene Elksnis, "The Gendered Plight of Terror: Annexation and Exile in Latvia 1940-1950" (2011). Dissertations. 409. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/409 This Dissertation-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. THE GENDERED PLIGHT OF TERROR: ANNEXATION AND EXILE IN LATVIA 1940-1950 by Irene Elksnis Geisler A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of The Graduate College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History Advisor: Marion W. Gray, Ph.D. Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, Michigan June 2011 THE GENDERED PLIGHT OF TERROR: ANNEXATION AND EXILE IN LATVIA 1940-1950 Irene Elksnis Geisler, Ph.D. Western Michigan University, 2011 Drawing on methodologies employed in Oral History and Memory scholarship, this qualitative study utilizes the lens of gender to explore narratives contesting time-honored notions of violence, war and peace. It examines Latvia's history through the voices of women from 1940 to 1950. This project seeks to interpret Latvian history based on the experiences of those who survived invasion, exile and deportation. It positions the narratives of women at the center rather than at the margins of historical analysis. The project analyzes themes central to women's social roles in order to attain a more complete understanding of war, exile and people's relationship to national identities focusing on three interconnected analytical topics: (1) Latvian ethnic nationalism and gender relations; (2) women's empowerment and subordination in war; and (3) methods of coping and resistance. This study finds that the narrators' perceptions, understanding and experiences of this historical period were a product of their gender roles, as well as their age, social status and personal individuality. Women's narratives and memories reveal the centrality of gender in the construction of Latvian national identity. UMI Number: 3467817 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI Dissertation Publishing UMI 3467817 Copyright 2011 by ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This edition of the work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. uest ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Copyright by Irene Elksnis Geisler 2011 DEDICATION I dedicate this dissertation to the memory of my father Auseklis Elksnis, who passed away during its completion, and to my beloved mother Alma Elksnis, both of whom were central characters in this work. Without their love, support and inspiration, this dissertation would not have been possible. I would also like to dedicate this work to the memory of my dear professor and member of my dissertation committee, Dr. Nora Faires, who also passed away several months before this project was completed. Irene Elksnis Geisler u ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am deeply indebted to Dr. Marion Gray, my mentor, chair of my Dissertation Committee, and my Supervising Professor, for his excellent guidance, caring and encouragement. Dr. Gray assisted me in conceptualizing my project. He guided my research and patiently corrected my writing. His sound advice helped me to complete my Ph. D. I would sincerely like to thank Dr. John Norman for helping me to develop background in Russian and Eastern European History, for participating on my dissertation committee and for offering his enduring support. I would like to express grateful acknowledgment to Dr. Andrejs Plakans, the most significant expert on Latvian history in the U.S. Your expertise and guidance on the history of Latvia was invaluable. It was an honor to have you participate in my dissertation. Special thanks to Dr. Eli Rubin for his astute insight and willingness to participate in my final defense committee at the last moment. I would like to thank Dr. Irena Saleniece, a leading scholar in the pioneering of the reconstruction of Latvian history, whom I have grown to know as a dear friend. Your work has been inspirational for my research and professional career. My gratitude to Iveta Bogdanovica, and staff and students at Daugavpils University, Latvia. Thank you for the opportunity to join you on the Oral History expedition to Preji, for sharing with me your rich compilation of oral history testimonies and for your never ending willingness to help. Many thanks to Mara Zirriite, Dr. Baiba Bela iii Acknowledgements - Continued Krumina, Dr. Dagmara Beitnere, leva Garda, Edmunds Supulis and my other colleagues at the Latvian National Oral History Project for welcoming me into your group, helping coordinate my oral history interviews in Latvia, and giving your encouragement and best suggestions. I am grateful to the Museum of Occupation of Latvia for sponsoring my Fulbright research, and Lelde Neimane for her expertise and direction in indentifying sources and research techniques. A heartfelt thank you to the Latvian State Archives, and Iveta Skinke for her generous professional guidance, friendship and advice. To my dear friend and companion in Latvia, Inga Grauze, thanks for hosting me at the apartment building which has come to be known as the "Fulbright House," for the many hours of discussion and travel in the country of my heritage. Lastly, I offer my regards and blessings to those who were willing to share your life stories and oral histories in formal interview settings. My research would not have been possible without the support of all of you. I would like to thankfully acknowledge that this work was supported in a large part through the Fulbright Student Fellowship for study in Latvia through the U.S. Department of State and Western Michigan University's Graduate College Dissertation Completion Fellowship. My research was also partially supported by generous research grants through the American Latvian Association and Acknowledgements - Continued DaugavasVanagi Latvian Relief Organization, the Beatrice and George Beech Graduate Fellowship and the Scholarship for Mature Women through the Kalamazoo Chapter of the American Association of University Women. The Judith F. Stone Award and the A. Edyth Menge Scholarship, both through the History Department at Western Michigan University, supported specific aspects of my professional development. I am deeply grateful. Irene Elksnis Geisler v TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii LISTOFTABLES x LISTOFMAPS x LIST OF FIGURES xi CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1 Connecting Collective Memory and Historical Source 1 Historiography 6 Oral History and Latvian Memories of the Second World War 8 Theoretical Perspectives that Guide my Research 14 Theory, Thesis and Methodology 19 Conclusion 23 II. THE FIRST PERIOD OF NATIONHOOD AND THE SHAPING OF LATVIANMEMORY 25 Nation Building and Land Reform in the Interwar Years 28 Everyday Life in the Interwar Years 38 Conclusion 52 vi Table of Contents—continued CHAPTER III. THE FIRST SOVIET OCCUPATION: IDENTITY, POWER AND OPPRESSION 54 Waiting for War 60 The Events of the Soviet Takeover and Occupation: The National Song Festival 69 The Year of Terror 75 Soviet Takeover of Administrative Functions and Information Media 78 Nationalization of Land, Collectivization of Agriculture 81 Reduction of the Standard of Living and Sovietization of the Economy 85 The Molding of Latvian Children and Youth 89 Repressions, Deportations and Terror 92 Conclusion 95 IV. THE DEPORTATIONS OF JUNE 14, 1941: THE SEARCH FOR STRENGTH AMID INDIGNITY AND DESPAIR 99 Arrests, Executions and Expulsions 101 The Trauma of Deportation 105 The Banished 108 The Journey to Siberia 113 The Struggle for Survival 124 Coping and Resistance 128 Conclusion 134 vii Table of Contents—continued TER THE GERMAN OCCUPATION 1941-1945: POWER HEGEMONIES AND ISSUES OF CULTURE, POWER AND PLACE 137 On the Front Lines of War 145 Germans as Liberators or Oppressors 149 Nazi Rule: Takeover, Terror, Repressions and Atrocities 153 Civilian Conscription 162 Military Conscription 166 Daily Existence 176 Conclusion 178 FLIGHT TO THE WEST 1944-1945 183 The Decision to Flee 185 The Journey West 196 The Perilous Flight into Exile 202 Conclusion 209 EXILE IN THE WEST: GOD'S LITTLE BIRDS 211 No End to War: A War Not Their Own 218 Refugees and Displaced Persons 228 "War Criminals" and "Nazi Collaborators" 235 Cultural and Political Endeavors 240 Into Diaspora 250 Conclusion 258 viii Table of Contents—continued CHAPTER Vni. CONCLUSION 263 The Gendered Plight of Terror 265 Collective Memory and the Search for Identity 268 Gender, Nation and Locality 274 APPENDICES A. Definition of Terms 280 B. HSIRB Approval Letter 282 BIBLIOGRAPHY 283 IX LIST OF TABLES 1. Population of Latvia 1897-1935 43 LIST OF MAPS 1. Baltic States During Interwar Years 27 2. Eastern Europe 1939-1940 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact Spheres 59 3. USSR. Territory 1941 123 4. Ostland: Estonia. Latvia, Lithuania and Byelorussia 144 5. Latvian Soldiers as Part of Occupied-Nation Army Battle Routes 1941-1945 175 6. Latvian Refugee Emigration 1944-1953 208 7. Occupied Zones in Germany and Austria: Administratively Territorial Changes in Europe after WWH 1945-1955 217 x LIST OF FIGURES 1. Daugavpils Song Festival Poster 73 2. Latvians in Siberian resettlement camps 99 3. Cargo train with the deported before departure to Siberia June 1941 101 4.