A CRITICAL REVIEW OF ALTERNATIVE TOURISM: FULL FARE TOURISM? A CASE STUDY OF MUNDO MAYA by ALISON M. JOHNSTON BA. The University of British Columbia, 1990 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Community & Regional Planning We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA October 1994 ©Alison M. Johnston, 1994 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Department of QOHMAOMlTM A f-e^lOMAt. PlAWA)iM^ f The University of British Columbia Vancouver, Canada Date OOP DE-6 (2/88) ABSTRACT Many planners concerned about the serious social and ecological impacts associated with the tourism industry now promote a shade of tourism called 'alternative' tourism. The difference between regular tourism and alternative tourism is that the latter has the connotation of being 'full fare' or sustainable. Generally speaking, alternative tourism is no less exploitive than regular tourism. The set of tourism activities now labelled as 'alternative' is merely a sub-component of the notorious mainstream tourism model. It unleashes the same type of negative social and ecological impacts as regular tourism, because the same planning methodology is employed. Mundo Maya, an alternative tourism program launched in 1990 but marketed before proper planning had taken place, follows this trend. The problems arising from the tourism industry's interpretation of alternative tourism points to a need to revisit the theory of alternative tourism and look to the 'success stories'. If present forms of alternative tourism are not sustainable, then it is vital that a line be drawn between tourism purporting to be alternative tourism and true alternative tourism. Otherwise a valuable body of theory could be discarded on the basis of misguided implementation efforts and opportunistic marketing. Within Mundo Maya, several small-scale independent success stories exist. These illustrate the conditions under which tourism can be 'full fare'. When the gap between the theory and practice of alternative tourism is closed, alternative tourism is a viable and rewarding community development tool. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT. TABLE OF CONTENTS. LIST OF TABLES. FIGURES & MAPS vii LIST OF ACRONYMS ix GLOSSARY OF SPANISH TERMS xi INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER 1: DEVELOPMENT PLANNING & SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT INTRODUCTION 4 I. Traditional Development Theory & Its Goals 5 1.1 The First Goal: Modernization 5 1.2 The Second Goal: Integration 6 1.3 The Third Goal: Higher Consumption & Economic Growth 7 II. The Reconceptualization of Development Under the NEP 8 2.1 Rethinking Economic Growth 8 2.2 The New Policy Direction 9 2.3 Synthesis of New Policy Direction by Tourism Industry 10 III. Sustainable Development 11 3.1 Definition of Sustainable Development 11 3.2 Planning Implications ...12 3.3 Sustainable Tourism 15 IV. The Ethical Dimensions of the Sustainability Debate 17 4.1 North vs. South 17 4.2 Equity 19 4.3 Power Differentials 21 V. The Role of Tourism in Development 22 5.1 Tourism as a Development Tool 22 5.2 Alternative Tourism as a Development Tool 24 CONCLUSION 26 CHAPTER 2: ALTERNATIVE TOURISM THEORY & PRACTICE 28 INTRODUCTION 28 I. The History of Alternative Tourism 28 1.1 Green Consumerism 28 1.2 The Emergence of Alternative Tourism 29 - iv - II. Evolution of the Alternative Tourism Concept 31 2.1 The Ambiguity of 'Alternative' Tourism 31 2.2 Alternative Tourism as a Response to Mass Tourism 32 2.3 Alternative Tourism as a Subversion of the DSP 33 III. Defining Alternative Tourism 34 3.1 The Theory of Alternative Tourism 34 3.2 Definition of 'Full Fare' Alternative Tourism 37 IV. The Different Shades of Alternative Tourism 40 4.1 Adventure Tourism 40 4.2 Ecotourism 40 4.3 Low Impact or Supply-side Tourism 43 CONCLUSION 44 CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY MANIFESTATIONS OF ALTERNATIVE TOURISM IN MESOAMERICA INTRODUCTION 48 I. Economic Diversification Through Alternative Tourism 48 1.1 Problems Facing the Mayan Region 48 1.2 Solutions Contemplated by Regional Planners 52 II. Regional Tourism Collaboration 54 2.1 Conception of La Ruta Maya 54 2.2 Description of La Ruta Maya 56 CONCLUSION 58 CHAPTER 4: THE CONCEPT & STRUCTURE OF MUNDO MAYA 60 INTRODUCTION 60 I. The Concept Behind Mundo Maya 60 1.1 The Birth of Mundo Maya 60 1.2 Evolution of the Mundo Maya Concept 61 1.3 Objectives of Mundo Maya 62 1.4 Target Market of Mundo Maya 62 II. Structure of Mundo Maya 64 2.1 Organizational Framework of Mundo Maya 64 2.2 Involvement of the Private Sector 64 2.3 The Creation of Destination Circuits 66 2.4 Intra-Regional & External Technical Assistance 67 CONCLUSION 69 CHAPTER 5: POLICIES FACILITATING & INHIBITING MUNDO MAYA 70 INTRODUCTION 70 I. Policies Facilitating the Achievement of Mundo Maya Goals 70 1.1 Complementary Policy in Mexico 70 1.2 Complementary Policy in Guatemala 73 1.3 Complementary Policy in Belize 79 II. Policies Threatening the Achievement of Mundo Maya Goals 80 2.1 Background 80 2.2 Cancun as the Gateway to Mundo Maya 80 2.3 Conflicting Policies in the Laconddn and Pet6n Rainforests 83 - V - 2.3(a) Road Building 85 2.3(b) Colonization 85 2.3(c) Cattle Ranching 87 2.3(d) Oil Exploration 87 2.3(e) Hydro-Electric Projects 88 2.4 Summary of Policies Threatening Mundo Maya 90 CONCLUSION 92 CHAPTER 6: MARKETING MUNDO MAYA 94 INTRODUCTION 94 I. The Alternative Tourist 95 1.1 Definition & Discussion of Alternative Tourists 95 1.2 Management Implications for Mundo Maya 97 II. Narrowing the Target Market of Mundo Maya 99 2.1 European Alternative Tourists 99 2.2 American Mass Tourists 101 2.3 Cultural Tourists: The Alleged Target Market 102 2.4 Archaeological Tourists: The Real Target Market 104 CONCLUSION 105 CHAPTER 7: MUNDO MAYA PROMOTIONAL MATERIALS 108 INTRODUCTION 108 I. Public Sector Brochures 109 1.1 Mexican Ministry of Tourism Brochures 109 1.2 Guatemalan Ministry of Tourism Brochures 109 1.3 Mundo Maya Organization Brochures 111 1.4 Summary of Public Sector Mundo Maya Brochures 113 II. Private Sector Brochures 113 2.1 Introduction 113 2.2 Smorgasbord Category 114 2.3 High-End Study Category 114 2.4 Action Category 115 2.5 Concerned Citizens Category 116 2.6 Committed Citizens Category 116 2.7 Volunteer Category 118 2.8 Summary of Private Sector Mundo Maya Brochures 118 CONCLUSION 119 CHAPTER 8: DEMAND-SIDE OR PSEUDO ALTERNATIVE TOURISM 122 INTRODUCTION 122 I. Visitation Levels 122 1.1 Industry Trends 122 1.2 Management Implications for Mundo Maya 123 II. The Social & Ecological Impacts 127 2.1 Industry Trends 127 2.2 Management Implications for Mundo Maya 129 III. Demand-Side Pricing & Profit Distribution 131 - vi - 3.1 Industry Trends 131 3.2 Management Implications for Mundo Maya 134 CONCLUSION 136 CHAPTER 9: SUPPLY-SIDE OR TRUE ALTERNATIVE TOURISM 141 INTRODUCTION 141 I. Getting Mundo Maya Back on Track 142 1.1 Deliberate Policy 142 1.2 Integrated Planning 143 II. Bottom-up Development 144 2.1 Top-Down vs. Bottom-up Development 144 2.2 Models for Bottom-up Development 147 2.2(a) Equity Partnerships 147 2.2(b) Common Interest Partnerships 149 2.2(c) Community Ownership 152 2.2(d) The Imaginative Entrepreneur 154 CONCLUSION 160 CHAPTER 10: THE PREREQUISITES FOR SUCCESSFUL BOTTOM-UP DEVELOPMENT. 162 INTRODUCTION 162 I. The Three Fundamental Pre-Requisites 162 1.1 Government Support for Grassroots Initiatives 162 1.2 Community Participation 164 1.3 Human Rights 168 CONCLUSION 173 CONCLUSION 174 BIBLIOGRAPHY 177 APPENDIX 1 207 Analysis of Private Sector Alternative Tourism Brochures on Case Study Region - Corporate Words vs. Deeds (Tables 6-11) APPENDIX 2 213 Analysis of Private Sector Alternative Tourism Brochures on Case Study Region - Corporate Field Practices (Tables 12-17) APPENDIX 3 219 Maps on Case Study Region - Vll - LIST OF TABLES. FIGURES & MAPS TABLES: TABLE 1: Summary of Private Sector Brochures (p. 120, 121) TABLE 2: Visitation Levels at Mexican Archaeological Sites - 1989 (p. 139) TABLE 3: Visitation Levels at Mexican Ecological Sites - 1989 (p. 139) TABLE 4: Park Fees in Worldwide Alternative Tourism Destinations (p. 140) TABLE 5: Park Fees in Mundo Maya Alternative Tourism Destinations (p. 140) TABLE 6: Smorgasbord Category - Corporate Words Versus Deeds (Appendix 1, p. 207) TABLE 7: High-End Study Category - Corporate Words Versus Deeds (Appendix 1, p. 208) TABLE 8: Action Category - Corporate Words Versus Deeds (Appendix 1, p. 209) TABLE 9: Concerned Citizens Category - Corporate Words Versus Deeds (Appendix 1, p. 210) TABLE 10: Committed Citizens Category - Corporate Words Versus Deeds (Appendix 1, p. 211 (a) and (b)) TABLE 11: Volunteer/Genuine Study Category - Corporate Words Versus Deeds (Appendix 1, p. 212) TABLE 12: Smorgasbord Category - Corporate Field Practices (Appendix 2, p. 213 (a) and (b)) TABLE 13: High-End Study Category - Corporate Field Practices (Appendix 2, p. 214) TABLE 14: Action Category - Corporate Field Practices (Appendix 2, p. 215) TABLE 15: Concerned Citizens Category - Corporate Field Practices (Appendix 2, p. 216) TABLE 16: Committed Citizens Category - Corporate Field Practices (Appendix 2, p. 217 (a) and (b) ) TABLE 17: Volunteer/Genuine Study Category - Corporate Field Practices (Appendix 2, p.