Nepal Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 14, No. 1 (2013) 121-128 Groundwater Extraction: Implications on Local Water Security of Peri-urban Area of Kathmandu Valley Rajesh Sada1, Anushiya Shrestha1, Kanchan Karki2 and Ashutosh Shukla1 1Peri-urban Water Security Project, Nepal Engineering College, Center for Postgraduate Studies Balkhu, Kathmandu 2Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Illinois e-mail: [email protected] Abstract The rapid and haphazard urbanization in Kathmandu valley and expansion of built-up area to the peripheral rural landscapes has resulted to formation of peri- urban areas which are now transforming into urban form. This paper examines how the increasing urban water demand has put unprecedented pressure on groundwater sources in the peri-urban areas of Kathmandu valley. Based on the semi-structured interviews with local people, focus group discussions and key informants interviews, the study found that water security at Jhaukhel is closely associated with groundwater and the dependency of local people on it has increased over the years. The implications of the groundwater extraction coupled with sand mining in the area have been manifested in the form of declining groundwater table and drying of traditional water sources. Despite the growing awareness among the local people on the consequences of depleting groundwater table, in absence of strict regulatory mechanism, the exploitation of groundwater has been adding threat to the local eco-hydrology of the area and subjecting the local community to water insecurity. Key words: groundwater extraction, impacts, peri-urban, urbanization, water security Introduction growth, expansion in the urban areas, agricultural Kathmandu valley is the most urbanized area in the intensification, growth in the tourism and other country. The built-up area in the valley expanded from infrastructure and services in Kathmandu valley are 33.3 km2 in 1955 to 164.72 km2 in 2000 (Pradhan & Parera the anthropogenic activities and processes that have 2005) and over the last decade the population been responsible for the increase in the water demand increased by 61.23% (Central Bureau of Statistics for municipal, commercial and industrial uses. At (CBS) 2012). This process of urbanization and present, Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited subsequent expansion of the built-up area to the (KUKL) is capable of supplying only 155 and 100 peripheral rural landscape has resulted to emergence million liters per day (MLD) of water during wet and of rural-urban intermediary, differentiated by a mixed dry seasons respectively against the demand of 320 rural-urban economy and livelihood, differently called MLD. Thus shortages of 165 and 220 MLD in the wet as rural-urban fringe, peri-urban interface and and dry seasons are apparent (KUKL 2010). This acute Desakota by different researchers (Allen 2003, Brook short supply in municipal level coupled with ever et al. 2003, Narain & Nischal 2007). increasing demand of water forced people to look for other reliable sources of water supply. Moench and As identified by International Center for Integrated Janakarajan (2006) argue that the emergence of Mountain Development (ICIMOD) in 2007, population different modes of water transfer from rural and peri- 121 Nepal Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 14, No. 1 (2013) 121-128 urban areas in Kathmandu has been the result of as shown in Figure 2. In the last decade the population demand for convenient water supply, created by the in the VDC increased by 1.56% with the addition of gap left by the combined services of traditional 435 (3.68%) households. This VDC lies in the northern sources and piped water supply system in Kathmandu groundwater recharge zone among the three distinct valley. As per the estimation made by Shrestha (2011) groundwater zones in Kathmandu valley identified by more than 90% of the water supplied by tankers was Japan International Corporation Agency (JICA) extracted from groundwater resources mostly from the in 1990. peri-urban areas. Changes over time in total As the surface water sources in Kathmandu are already population of Jhaukhel VDC constraint, increasing urban water demand has put unprecedented pressure on groundwater resources. In the peri-urban areas, increasing groundwater extraction for local and urban water supply has been stressing local water security. In this context, this paper examined how the local water security at Jhaukhel is Number linked to groundwater and describes the current status of various modes of groundwater extraction in the area highlighting upon the impending implications on the local water security. Census Year Methodology Study area Fig. 2. Changing trend in total population at Jhaukhel (Source: CBS 1981; CBS 1991; CBS 2001; CBS 2012) The study was conducted at Jhaukhel Village Development Committee (VDC) which is located at Data collection longitudes 85° 24’ 56" and 85° 26’ 15" East and latitudes 27° 40’ 39" and 27° 42’ 17" North (VDC, 2006). It lies This study is based on qualitative research design about 2 km north of the city core of Bhaktapur involving direct field observation and semi-structured Municipality (Figure 1). Located at the northern flange interviews with local residents, government and non- of Bhaktapur Municipality, this VDC covers an area of governmental officials, commercial water 5.41 km2. entrepreneurs and brick kiln operators to capture the information on groundwater extraction at Jhaukhel. Similarly, series of focus group discussions were conducted in the study area to understand the perceptions on positive and negative implications of the increasing competition over the extraction of groundwater resources in terms of local water security. Secondary sources of data have been reviewed to substantiate the findings from the formal and informal interactions. Results and Discussion Groundwater extraction Groundwater extraction for local use There are around 11 community drinking water supply schemes in Jhaukhel. Among them, Changu- Fig. 1. Location map of the study area Duwakot-Jhaukhel Drinking Water Supply System (CDJ DWSS) that has been in operation since 1998 The VDC is inhabited by a total of 7721 people (Male- A.D. is the largest community drinking water supply 3908 and Female- 3813) in 1631 households (CBS 2012) scheme. It is based on the groundwater extracted from 122 Rajesh Sada/Groundwater Extraction: Implications.......... two infiltration galleries that are constructed near the bank of Manohara River in Changunarayan VDC. Beside this system, all the other systems are dependent upon groundwater sources of Jhaukhel itself. Those households which do not have piped water supply connection within households are dependent on other public as well as private groundwater sources and even the households who have tap connection also use the existing community groundwater sources for other domestic purposes because the tap water supply is not adequate to meet all the domestic water requirements. According to the VDC profile (2006), majority of the households are dependent upon piped water supply connection followed by dug well/ tube well, springs, stone spouts and other sources (Figure 3). Fig.4. Location of community groundwater resources in the study area (Source ENPHO 2011) Groundwater extraction for brick production Brick industries have been in operation in Jhaukhel Fig.3. Distribution of households using different sources since 1990 and at present there are 12 brick industries of water (Source: VDC 2006) in this VDC. This is highly water demanding industry and in Jhaukhel, the only reliable water source has Environment and Public Health organization (ENPHO) been groundwater. As per the field information, recorded 70 community groundwater sources in the production of each brick requires on an average 0.75 study area (29 springs, 11 stone spouts, 26 dug wells liters of water. Based on the data obtained from and 4 tube wells) in 2011. Among those 70 sources, 51 Department of Small Scale and Cottage Industries were recorded to be in use as domestic and drinking (DSSCI) of Bhaktapur, all the brick industries in water sources while the remaining 19 were used for Jhaukhel annually produce 31.8 million bricks. irrigation and other purposes. The spatial distribution Considering the water required per brick production, of these community groundwater sources are given in the estimated volume of annual groundwater extraction Figure 4. Beside these community water sources, by these industries comes to be 23.85 million liters. people also own private dug wells and tube wells to However, based on the interviews with key extract groundwater, however, their exact numbers functionaries of brick factories operating in the VDC, were not known. Lately, an increasing trend has been the annual average brick production per industry is 7 observed in constructing private dug wells and tube million which makes a total of 84 million bricks wells, for both domestic and irrigation uses. This clearly production per year in Jhaukhel. Considering this data, reveals the increasing dependency of the local people these industries annually extracts 63 million liters of on groundwater extraction in the area to meet the groundwater. Beside water consumption for brick domestic and irrigation water needs. production, large numbers of labors who are engaged 123 Nepal Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 14, No. 1 (2013) 121-128 in the brick factories are also dependent on the same while the processed water, in bottles or jars has its groundwater