ISBN 978-94-92910-26-4 © John L. A. Huisman 2021 Printed and bound by Ipskamp Printing Cover photo: Sign on Taketomi Island reading “This way”, fieldwork 2017. Variation in form and meaning across the Japonic language family with a focus on the Ryukyuan languages Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen op gezag van de rector magnificus prof. dr. J.H.J.M. van Krieken, volgens besluit van het college van decanen in het openbaar te verdedigen op dinsdag 30 maart 2021 om 10.30 uur precies door Johan Leonardus Antonius Huisman geboren op 1 november 1987 te Kerkrade Promotoren Prof. dr. A. Majid Prof. dr. R. W. N. M. van Hout Prof. dr. A. P. J. van den Bosch Manuscriptcommissie Prof. dr. H. de Hoop Prof. dr. A.M. Backus (Tilburg University) Dr. P. Heinrich (Università Ca' Foscari, Italië) Dr. A. Kopecka (Université Lumière Lyon 2, Frankrijk) Prof. dr. P.C. Muysken The research reported in this was supported by the Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (grant number: 322-70-009). To my parents, José and Peter 556726-L-sub01-bw-Huisman Processed on: 2-3-2021 Contents Acknowledgements xiii Abbreviations xvi 1 General introduction 1.1 Background 3 1.2 Linguistic diversification 5 1.2.1 Processes of linguistic diversification 5 1.2.2 Drivers of linguistic diversification 6 1.3 The study of linguistic variation 8 1.3.1 The language vs. dialect problem 9 1.3.2 Quantitative measures of linguistic variation 10 1.4 The study of meaning 12 1.4.1 Colour 14 1.4.2 Parts of the body 16 1.4.3 Separation (“cutting and breaking”) events 17 1.5 Methodology 18 1.5.1 Fieldwork 18 1.5.2 Additional data 21 1.6 Aim and scope of the thesis 21 1.7 Structure of the thesis 23 2 The Japonic language family 2.1 Introduction 27 2.2 Geographic location and population history 27 2.2.1 Geographic location 27 2.2.2 Population history 28 2.3 Affiliation to other language families 30 2.4 General subdivisions 32 2.4.1 The Japanese branch 34 2.4.2 The Ryukyuan branch 35 vii 2.5 Language history 36 2.5.1 Japanese branch 36 2.5.2 Ryukyuan branch 37 2.6 Typological overview 37 2.7 Previous work on Japonic relevant to this thesis 43 2.7.1 Linguistic diversity 44 2.7.2 Colour 45 2.7.3 Parts of the body 47 2.7.4 Separation (“cutting and breaking”) events 48 2.8 Summary 50 3 The geographical configuration of a language area influences linguistic diversity Abstract 53 3.1 Introduction 54 3.2 Methods 58 3.2.1 Linguistic data 58 3.2.1.1 Vocabulary database 58 3.2.1.2 Measuring linguistic diversity 62 3.2.2 Non-linguistic data 64 3.2.2.1 Colonisation history 64 3.2.2.2 Geographic distance 65 3.2.2.3 Separation by water 65 3.2.3 Analysis 66 3.3 Results 67 3.3.1 Japanese and Ryukyuan form distinct subgroups 67 3.3.2 Geography and linguistic diversity across the 71 Japanese mainland 3.3.3 Geography and linguistic diversity across the 73 Ryukyu Islands 3.4 Discussion 76 3.5 Conclusion 79 viii Processed on: 2-3-2021 4 Stability and change in the colour lexicon of the Japonic languages Abstract 83 4.1 General introduction 84 4.1.1 The Japonic language family 85 4.1.2 Studies on colour in the Japonic language family 87 4.1.3 The current study 91 4.2 Methods 92 4.2.1 Languages and speakers 92 4.2.2 Materials and procedure 94 4.2.3 Coding 94 4.3 Results 95 4.3.1 Colour terms in contemporary Ryukyuan 96 4.3.2 Colour categories in contemporary Ryukyuan 100 4.3.3 Semantic variation in a core set of colour terms 102 4.3.3.1 The aka ‘(macro) red’ cognate set 104 4.3.3.2 The ki ‘yellow’ cognate set 105 4.3.3.3 The ao ‘grue/blue’ cognate set 106 4.3.3.4 The murasaki ‘purple’ cognate set 107 4.3.3.5 Overall cluster analysis for the cognate sets 108 4.3.4 Semantic change in the Ryukyuan colour lexicon 109 4.4 Discussion 112 4.5 Conclusion 115 5 Patterns of semantic variation differ across body parts: Evidence from the Japonic languages Abstract 119 5.1 Introduction 120 5.2 Study I: Body part naming task 124 5.2.1 Methods 124 5.2.1.1 Languages and speakers 124 5.2.1.2 Materials and procedure 125 5.2.1.3 Coding 127 5.2.2 Results 127 ix 556726-L-sub01-bw-Huisman 5.2.2.1 Regional and individual variation of body part 127 vocabulary in Japonic 5.2.2.2 Semantic distinctions in parts of the face and 131 parts of the body 5.2.2.3 Lexical similarity in terms for face and body parts 139 5.2.3 Summary 141 5.3 Study II: Colouring-in of body parts 142 5.3.1 Methods 142 5.3.1.1 Speakers 142 5.3.1.2 Materials and procedure 143 5.3.1.3 Image processing 144 5.3.2 Results 144 5.3.2.1 The face 145 5.3.2.2 The torso 147 5.3.2.3 The upper limbs 149 5.3.2.4 The lower limbs 150 5.3.3 Summary 151 5.4 General discussion 152 5.5 Conclusion 155 6 Cross-linguistic constraints and lineage-specific developments in the semantics of cutting and breaking in Japonic and Germanic Abstract 159 6.1 Introduction 160 6.2 Methods 163 6.2.1 Languages and speakers 163 6.2.1.1 The Japonic languages 163 6.2.1.2 Speakers 165 6.2.2 Materials and procedure 166 6.2.3 Coding 168 6.3 Results 170 6.3.1 Semantic dimensions of cutting and breaking 170 in Standard Japanese x 6.3.2 The cutting and breaking domain across the 174 Japonic languages 6.3.3 Comparing the cutting and breaking domain 180 in Japonic and Germanic 6.3.3.1 Measuring semantic similarity 182 6.3.3.2 Visualising semantic similarity 184 6.4 Discussion 187 6.5 Conclusion 190 7 Summary and conclusion 7.1 Introduction 193 7.2 Results 193 7.2.1 Geography and linguistic diversity 193 7.2.2 Semantics in the Japonic language family 195 7.2.3 Semantic change and variability across domains 196 7.3 Contributions of this thesis 197 7.3.1 Methodological contributions 198 7.3.2 Theoretical contributions 200 7.3.2.1 Are there differences in the patterns of linguistic 200 variation between connected land and islands? 7.3.2.2 To what extent are semantic categories in 200 endangered languages affected by contact with majority languages? 7.3.2.3 Are some subparts of a semantic domain more 201 variable than others? 7.3.2.4 How do language-specific developments interact 202 with cross-linguistic constraints? 7.4 Future directions 203 7.4.1 The role of geography in linguistic diversification 204 7.4.2 Semantics in the Japonic language family 205 7.4.3 Mutual intelligibility 207 7.5 Conclusion 208 xi References 211 Appendix 247 Samenvatting 255 Biographical note 261 MPI Series in Psycholinguistics 263 xii Acknowledgments I’ve crossed paths with many people over the course of this project and I would like to thank everyone who has been part of the journey. Your guidance, kindness and support have helped me reach where I am today. First, I am deeply grateful to all the Ryukyuan and Japanese consultants for their contribution. Without your assistance and endless patience, this project would have been impossible. Thank you all for your warm welcome, your generosity in answering my many questions about your languages, and teaching me about your local culture and history: ᮏ◊✲ࡢ᪉ゝㄪᰝࡢཧຍ⪅ࡢⓙᵝ࡟ࡈ༠ຊ࠸ࡓࡔ࠸ࡓࡇ࡜࡟ᨵ ࡵ࡚ឤㅰ⮴ࡋࡲࡍࠋ㐲ࡃ㞳ࢀࡓ࢜ࣛࣥࢲ࠿ࡽ᮶ࡓ࡟ࡶ࠿࠿ࢃࡽࡎࠊ⚾ ࡢᩘࠎࡈ㉁ၥ࡟ᑐࡋ࡚ࢃࡊࢃࡊศ࠿ࡾࡸࡍࡃㄝ᫂ࢆ࠸ࡓࡔ࠸ࡓࡾ࡜ࠊ ⓙᵝࡢࡈཌព࡟ឤ⃭⮴ࡋࡲࡋࡓࠋ࠾ᩍ࠼࠸ࡓࡔ࠸ࡓ᭷┈࡞᝟ሗࢆά⏝ ࡉࡏ࡚࠸ࡓࡔࡁࠊ༤ኈㄽᩥࢆ௙ୖࡆࡲࡋࡓࠋ㔜ࡡ࡚࠾♩⏦ࡋୖࡆࡲࡍࠋ 㟷᳃┴ࡢⓙᵝࠊ࠶ࡾ㶟ࢇ࡝ࡈࡍࠋ዆⨾⩌ᓥࡢⓙᵝࠊ࠶ࡾࡀࡗࡉࡲࡾࡻ ࣮ࡓࠋἈ⦖ㅖᓥࡢⓙᵝࠊ࡟ࡩ࠻࣮࡛࣮ࡧࡿࠋᐑྂㅖᓥࡢⓙᵝࠊࡓࢇ࡛ ࠷ࡀ࣮ࡓࢇ࡛࠷ࠊࡸࡄࡳࡍ࡛࠷ࡀࡩ࣮ࠋඵ㔜ᒣㅖᓥࡢⓙᵝࠊࡋ࠿࠸࡜ ࠹࡟࣮ࡩ࠵࠸ࡺ࣮ࠋ I would also like to offer my sincere gratitude to those who made my fieldwork life a lot easier, whether by introducing me to speakers, driving me around to teach me about everything local, giving me that at- home feeling when staying over, or just having fun over food and drinks. Thank you Barry and Hiroko, Tony and everyone at the English Cafe, Taishi, Yoko and the rest of the Amami FM team, Satoshi, Mr. Nakazato, Marino and family, Aya and Yukito, Hiro and the Hiraraya Allstars, the Miyako Municipal Cultural Association, the Nishihara Community Centre, fellow fieldworkers Chris, Gijs, Martha, Nana, Natsuko, and Sōichiro, and thanks to Arisa for the translation help. I’d also like to give my special thanks to Inoue-sensei for our engaging converations, and to the senior researchers who were kind enough to free up time in their own busy fieldwork schedules: thank you Iwasaki-sensei, Maeda-sensei, and Takubo-sensei. xiii Acknowledgements I am extremely grateful to my supervisors, whose unwavering belief in me helped bring this thesis to a good end. Asifa, thank you for your continued support, from my time as a Master’s student to this thesis and beyond.