William & Mary Law Review Volume 49 (2007-2008) Issue 3 Article 8 12-1-2007 Estop in the Name of Love: A Case for Constructive Marriage in Virginia Andrew W. Scott Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmlr Part of the Family Law Commons Repository Citation Andrew W. Scott, Estop in the Name of Love: A Case for Constructive Marriage in Virginia, 49 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 973 (2007), https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmlr/vol49/iss3/8 Copyright c 2007 by the authors. This article is brought to you by the William & Mary Law School Scholarship Repository. https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmlr ESTOP IN THE NAME OF LOVE: A CASE FOR CONSTRUCTIVE MARRIAGE IN VIRGINIA TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ......................................... 974 I. THE STATUS OF COHABITATION AND MARRIAGE ........... 977 A. Defining M arriage ............................... 977 B. If It Looks Like a Duck and Walks Like a Duck ........ 980 C. "Let's Just Live Together". ....................... 982 D. Which Came First,the Chicken or the Bad Eggs? ...... 985 E. When It's Over .................................. 988 II. REMEDIES .......................................... 989 A. M arvin Remedies ................................ 990 B. Domestic Partnerships ........................... 991 C. Common Law Marriage ........................... 992 III. CONSTRUCTIVE MARRIAGE IN VIRGINIA ................ 999 A. The Legacy of Offield v. Davis ..................... 1000 B. Virginia's Take on Cohabitation ................... 1001 C. Current Virginia Recognition of Common Law Marriage .......................... 1003 D. Creating the Ties that Bind ....................... 1004 1. Equitable Estoppel ............................ 1005 2. Doctrine of Implied Partnership ................. 1006 E. Implications for Same-sex Relationships ............ 1008 CONCLUSION ......................................... 1009 973 974 WILLIAM AND MARY LAW REVIEW [Vol. 49:973 INTRODUCTION 'Without some supervision ... disputes are won not by justice but by strength. Although imperfect by any standard, the centuries' accretion of marriage laws are, today, society's painstakingly hammered consensus on how a couple should justly be treated." -E.J. Graff, What is MarriageFor? 1 In 1865, the Civil War ended in Virginia; in 2006, the Civil Union War in Virginia met with a similar fate. On November 7, 2006, the Commonwealth of Virginia amended its constitution with, among other things, the following provision:2 This Commonwealth and its political subdivisions shall not create or recognize a legal status for relationships of unmarried individuals that intends to approximate the design, qualities, significance, or effects of marriage. Nor shall this Common- wealth or its political subdivisions create or recognize another union, partnership, or other legal status to which is assigned the rights, benefits, obligations, qualities, or effects of marriage.3 The amendment is sweeping, to say the least. Not only does it prohibit the legal recognition of same-sex marriage and civil unions, it denies legal status to any couples involved in long-term non- marital cohabitation. Upon its passage, the amendment's supporters declared that the people of Virginia had spoken, and the message was clear: leave marriage alone.4 Such a sentiment is understandable. Marriage is the foundational economic, social, and religious unit in American culture. The U.S. Supreme Court has declared that "[m]arriage is one of the 'basic civil rights of man,' fundamental to our very existence and 1. E.J. GRAFF, WHAT IS MARRIAGE FOR? 212 (1999). 2. See Chris L. Jenkins, Ban on Same-Sex Unions Added to Va. Constitution, WASH. POST, Nov. 8, 2006, at A46. 3. VA. CONST. art. I, § 15-A. This amendment also defines marriage as "only a union between one man and one woman," foreclosing legal recognition of any form of same-sex union. Id. 4. Jenkins, supra note 2. 2007] ESTOP IN THE NAME OF LOVE 975 survival. 5 Marriage is of such significance that the Court has permitted extensive regulation of the institution under the state's police power.6 The state's interests in marriage are varied and substantial and include "keeping records, promoting health, and preventing child or incestuous marriages," as well as providing a safe, healthy, and nurturing environment for children and families; facilitating private networks of mutual support and obligation; and supporting public morality.7 Married people live longer,' make more money,9 have better-adjusted children, 10 and have a higher level of "subjective well-being"" than their nonmarried counterparts. In this way marriage is an important and beneficial institution for both couples and for society at large. Virginia's conclusion that it wants to protect the working model for such a successful, socially valuable, time-proven entity is hardly front page news. 2 From the standpoint of a state that clearly has articulated a public policy in favor of marriage, then, the relevant problem is not that too many people want to enter into marriage; rather, the problem is that Virginia is full of couples who cohabit but are not married. 3 According to the most recent U.S. Census estimate, there were a minimum of 128,363 unmarried-partner households 5. Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1, 12 (1967) (quoting Skinner v. Oklahoma, 316 U.S. 527, 535 (1942)). 6. See id. at 7 (citing Maynard v. Hill, 125 U.S. 190 (1888)). Although Loving struck down as unconstitutional a Virginia statue that prohibited interracial marriage, the Court noted that the State could regulate marriage under its police power. 7. David S. Caudill, Legal Recognition of UnmarriedCohabitation: A Proposalto Update and Reconsider Common-law Marriage,49 TENN. L. REV. 537, 558 (1982). 8. See LINDA J. WAITE & MAGGIE GALLAGHER, THE CASE FOR MARRIAGE 47 (2000) ("Compared to married people, the nonmarried ... have higher rates of mortality than the married: about 50% higher among women and about 240% higher among men." (citation omitted)). 9. See id. at 97 ("Married couples are far more affluent, on average, than singles."). 10. See id. at 38 ("Children living with cohabiting couples show poorer emotional development than children from married, two-parent families do." (citation omitted)). 11. Id. at 73 ("[The married have the highest level of subjective well-being ...." (citation and internal quotation marks omitted)). 12. Apparently the Washington Post agrees, as it reported the news of the amendment's passage on page A46. Jenkins, supra note 2. 13. From this standpoint, the first part of Virginia's constitutional amendment, which limits accessibility to marriage, does not logically follow from a clear policy preference in favor of state-regulated marriage. See VA. CONST. art. I, § 15-A. For further discussion of the implications of this Note for same-sex marriage, see infra Part III.E. 976 WILLIAM AND MARY LAW REVIEW [Vol. 49:973 in Virginia. 14 This translates to over 256,000 Virginians living in nonmarital cohabitation as of 2006. Statistics show that "[a]bout half of Americans from age thirty-five to thirty-nine have cohabited" at some point.15 If the aim of the new amendment to the Virginia Constitution is to encourage unmarried cohabiters to marry because they cannot hope to receive legal recognition for their less-than- marriage-but-more-than-just-dating relationships, then the new amendment may have some limited effect. Increased social accep- tance of cohabitation and a general aversion to marital commitment among cohabiters, 6 however, will strongly militate against that rather indirect incentive. This Note will argue that, in furtherance of its legitimate interest in regulating marriage, Virginia should adopt a form of common law marriage by estoppel known as "constructive marriage." 7 Because the extensive data on the benefits of marriage are available almost exclusively for male-female couples, and, more significantly, because same-sex marriage is now affirmatively banned by the Virginia Constitution, this Note will largely focus on heterosexual cohabita- tion and marriage." Part I will explain why nonmarital cohabitation should be strongly disfavored as a matter of policy. Part II will suggest that adoption of the doctrine of constructive marriage would be a timely, practical, and beneficial public policy for both the people 14. U.S. Census Bureau, http://factfinder.census.gov/ (under "Fast Access to Information," select "Virginia" in drop-down menu; then click "show more" next to "Social Characteristics" on the Virginia page) (last visited Nov. 30, 2007). The estimate is at the low end because the Census Bureau instructed that couples who were common law married could report in the category they thought to be "most appropriate." See U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, AMERICAN COMMUNITY SURVEY/PUERTO RICO COMMUNITY SURVEY: 2006 SUBJECT DEFINITIONS 65, availableat http://www. census .gov/acs/www/Downloads/2006/usedata/Subject Definitions.pdf (last visited Nov. 30, 2007). Virginia, however, does not recognize common law marriage. See Offield v. Davis, 40 S.E. 910 (Va. 1902). As a result, unmarried cohabiters who considered themselves to be common law married, but who were not legally married, could have reported in any category with which they identified. 15. WAITE & GALLAGHER, supra note 8, at 37; see also Larry Bumpass & Hsien-Hen Lu, Trends in Cohabitationand Implications for Children'sFamily Contexts in the United States, 54 POPULATION STUD. 32, tbl. 1 (showing similar rates of cohabitation for women between the ages of 25-44). 16. See Caudill, supra note 7, at 566. 17. This Note adopts the term "constructive marriage" from Professor David S. Caudill's article on the subject. See id. at 538-40. 18. A powerful argument could be made that constructive marriage would be as beneficial for same-sex couples as it has proven to be for heterosexual couples, but that is largely outside the scope of this Note. See infra Part III.E. 2007) ESTOP IN THE NAME OF LOVE and the State of Virginia. Part III will explore how constructive marriage comports with Virginia's constitutional, statutory, and common law, as well as the explicit and implicit public policy aims of the Commonwealth.