Freedom Dues: Negotiating Race, Servitude, and Freedom in Early American Law and Literature by Marci Prescott-Brown A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of English University of Toronto © Copyright by Marci Prescott-Brown 2019 Freedom Dues: Negotiating Race, Servitude, and Freedom in Early American Law and Literature Marci Prescott-Brown Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of English University of Toronto 2019 Abstract Freedom dues were typically payments of money, land, or clothing that masters gave to servants upon completion of servitude. Using case studies, this thesis captures the arc of a historic transformation in how freedom dues were perceived between the mid- seventeenth and mid-nineteenth centuries; it illuminates how these dues became a humanitarian symbol and the narrative of self-actualization that arose about them. The narrative focus on freedom dues was generated through tracts advocating immigration to colonial America and was integral to early understandings of the promise of New World prosperity. The texts I address use this narrative to critique a society failing to live up to its implied ideal: enfranchisement through hard work. My thesis reveals that often relations of servitude morph into something that looks dangerously akin to chattel slavery. In Chapter One, I contrast the Lawes and Libertyes (1648), where servants were to be prevented from “be[ing] sent away emptie,” to the revisioning of this framework in the Fugitive Slave Law (1850), which enshrined slaves’ perpetual indebtedness. In Chapter Two, I use the Records of the Salem Witch-Hunt (1692-93) to examine how ii Tituba’s claim that the devil offered her an indenture followed by many “fine things” came to influence other testimonies. I argue that the narrative Tituba and others craft regarding the Devil's promise of servitude properly rewarded but not supplied by Massachusetts’s governors would have been shocking in New England at the time. Chapter Three analyses The Scarlet Letter (1850) and reveals that, by presenting Hester Prynne as a branded, lifelong indentured servant, Hawthorne effectively portrays a variety of servitude that appears similar to black slavery. Hester and Pearl have their customary white privileges undermined, I argue, and Hawthorne’s novel reveals abolitionist leanings. In Chapter Four, I consider Harriet Wilson’s autobiographical text, Our Nig (1859). The Bellmonts’ refusal to provide proper freedom dues to the novel’s protagonist highlights the degree to which her servitude has been slavish, and Wilson’s plea for support to remedy this wrong provides a final critique of "free" New England. iii Acknowledgments This dissertation was generously supported by University of Toronto Fellowships and a Doctoral Completion Award, as well as by Ontario Graduate Scholarships, including The Thomas and Beverley Simpson OGS at the Faculty of Arts and Science. I am deeply grateful to my supervisory committee. The attention each member gave my chapters, reading them and making numerous comments and suggestions over all these years greatly strengthened my work. My supervisor, Mary Nyquist, was my chief inspiration for this project and she has supported me through every challenge I faced. Her listening ear, extensive knowledge, and insightful, well-timed comments throughout the years made this dissertation what it is. George Elliott Clarke’s willingness to be on my committee proved fortuitous, as he often considered wider contexts of applications for the texts I was analysing that stretched into both Canadian and European sources, which undoubtedly enriched my work. I aspire to have his kindness and generosity as an academic. Jeannine De Lombard’s razor-sharp and intuitive feedback contributed to my knowledge and this thesis benefited from her critical assessment. Thanks also to my examining committee for taking the time to read my work and provide so many interesting paths for future thought. Andrea Stone’s thorough and meticulous report helped me to see my thesis through fresh eyes. Her provocative questions before and during the examination will continue to bear fruit in the years to come as I revise these materials for publication. Thanks also to Paul Downes, whose questions during the exam I have noted. I know they will be very useful as I work in this field. iv Everyone needs a village, and I, too, am fortunate to have one that sustained me in numerous ways while writing. Laurel Ryan, Kailin Wright, Jenny O’Kell, Alisha Walters, and Melanie East have supported me unconditionally since I started the program. Their intelligence and compassion have encouraged me greatly and I’m so blessed to have them as friends. Christine Choi’s timely encouragement as I finished up writing, submitting, and defending the dissertation helped me to maintain a positive outlook on what can be a daunting process. Her encouraging text messages just when I seemed awash in discouragement would pull me out of the pits in seconds, and remind me that not everything was in my control but it would all be okay. Pauline Beange, Kristen Schranz, and Joy Fitzgibbon are all from other departments at the University of Toronto but provided so much cheer, good food, advice, and laughter during all the seasons of this process – I could not have finished without their constant support. Other parts of my village are directly connected to my becoming a mother during the program. Special thanks Brenda Lynham, Childhood Dreams Daycare (Bradford), YMCA childcare (Bradford), and Shining Faces Daycare (Bradford) as well as my parents, Carrol and Valton Prescott, and my sister, Yolanda Prescott-Lewis, and my in- laws, Marie and Oral Brown, Rachel Brown, and Leah Brown, who all provided excellent childcare to my children while I was madly trying to write up, submit, and defend my dissertation. I also want to thank some wonderful television shows – Bo on the Go!, Dora the Explorer, and Doc McStuffins especially – for sometimes allowing me a couple more hours of writing time in a pinch when there was no other childcare available. And there are still other parts of my village that have meant the world to me. Special thanks also to all the staff at Sunset Grill (Bradford) who knew my work hours v and would always keep the coffee coming and start my order as soon as I walked in. The laughter and conversation you provided as I crunched many deadlines to get this project done meant a lot to me. Thanks to Kate Epstein at EpsteinWords, who lent me her critical eye and provided many helpful recommendations on my writing as I tried to get everything submission-ready. And to Simonne Jones, my best friend since Junior Kindergarten, who always reminded me that she’d never known me to quit anything in my life; that others could look at my challenges and think the end was nigh but she knew better (she’d say – with that silvery laugh of hers) and remind me that I knew where I came from and I could do this, no matter the hardships. Simonne, I am so grateful for you unending support and I am forever in your debt. My family is a very special part of my village. My parents, Valton and Carrol Prescott, have always encouraged me to strive for the best and put my all into everything I do. Their love and support have been transformative for me in all the best ways. My sister and brother, Yolanda Prescott-Lewis and Nathan Prescott, always supported me with love, fun movie hours, popcorn, and a listening ear. I cannot express enough how thankful I am for the love and support of my husband and two children. My husband, Orett Brown, continually sacrificed so that I could finish this dissertation; his unflagging support and outrageously amazing sense of humour in many ways empowered me to make the most of my thesis-writing experience. Lastly, my children, Annalise and Cayla, are the source of so much love and laughter for me outside of my writing-life. Annalise’s favourite question since she was about five years old - whenever she would see me writing – was, “Mommy, are you done the dissertation yet?” to which I’d reply: “No, it’s not done yet.” Annalise and Cayla – mommy is finally done! vi Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................ ii Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................... iv Introduction ..................................................................................................................1 “The best poor Man’s Country in the World”: Reasons Why Many People Came to Colonial America ...........................................................................................3 The Master Class: Of Dreams and Reality ..............................................................10 The Scholarly Context.............................................................................................16 Chapter Overview ...................................................................................................21 Conclusions: Towards the Dream ...........................................................................28 Chapter One - The White Master Class and the Law: The Rise of Freedom Dues in American Law and Literature .........................................................................30 The Nature of Indentured Servitude in Colonial America ......................................32 The Early Features of Freedom Dues and their