DIGITAL DIPLOMACY & SOCIAL CAPITAL i Digital Diplomacy & Social Capital: Analysing Relational Components of Trust in US & Israeli Online Social Networks Anthony S. Deos University of Otago | Te Whare Wānanga o Otāgo Author Note Anthony S. Deos, Department of Politics | Te Tari Tōrangapū, University of Otago | Te Whare Wānanga o Otāgo. Correspondence concerning the dissertation should be addressed to Anthony S. Deos, Department of Politics Te Tari Tōrangapū, University of Otago Te Whare Wānanga o Otāgo, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand Aotearoa. Email: [email protected]. DIGITAL DIPLOMACY & SOCIAL CAPITAL ii Abstract For diplomatic relations, the ability to influence through attraction, or soft power, rather than hard power is preferable in the interconnected 21st century global society. Although debate remains regarding the objectives of public diplomacy, the relational approach offers opportunities for reaching the goal of mutual understanding. The emergence of new public diplomacy and the relational approach coincided with extensive innovation in communication technologies. The digital arena became a possible place for outreach, interaction, and the generation of social capital. These limited studies into digital diplomacy initiatives have focused on quantitative measures and structural aspects. However, the mechanisms that provide for social capital development still require investigation. Therefore, questions remain about whether social capital is being generated through digital diplomacy, and if so, how? This research offers a framework for evaluating the development of trust and reciprocity, presumed prerequisites for social capital generation, through four components of relational interaction: access, openness, credibility, and commitment. This framework is then used to investigate the digital diplomacy initiatives of two specific cases—the US and Israel. Results suggest that digital diplomacy can generate social capital via a relational approach using communicative action. However, social capital is contextual and has both positive and negative implications for diplomatic relations. Keywords: social media, social capital, digital diplomacy, networks, relational public diplomacy DIGITAL DIPLOMACY & SOCIAL CAPITAL iii Dedication Für Klaus Hagemann, MdB Klaus ist ein wahrer Freund und Vorbild. Ein Mann von dem wir alle lernen können. Er hat immer ein offenes Ohr und setzt sich immer für jeden einzelnen Menschen ein. Einzigartig in Maß und Mut! DIGITAL DIPLOMACY & SOCIAL CAPITAL iv Acknowledgements Interestingly, my journey to complete this dissertation resembles the concepts discussed within, including the power of relationships, the intricacies of networks, and the delicacy of bonds. The experience has been truly rewarding with the resulting value greater than the sum of its parts. These pages of text are the physical, tangible products of the process. However, they hold hidden within them the intangible components of these efforts as well. US Supreme Court Justice, Sandra Day O’Connor is credited with having said, “we don't accomplish anything in this world alone ... and whatever happens is the result of the whole tapestry of one's life and all the weavings of individual threads form one to another that creates something.” I have always thought this to be true and, at least in completing this dissertation, I have found it undeniable. While I put great personal effort into this academic endeavour, I could never have been successful without all the people, opportunities, mistakes, and experiences along the way. I owe a great debt of gratitude to my academic supervisors Dr. Chris Rudd, Dr. Lena Tan, and Dr. Erika Pearson for their ever-helpful feedback, unending encouragement, and generosity with time. In addition, I thank Prof. Stephen Knowles who served as convenor and the three anonymous examiners for their thoughtful insight and feedback. In completing this task, I had great help from my colleagues, and the professional and academic staff at the University of Otago to whom I offer my appreciation. In addition, I am indebted to Dr. Geoff Pigman and Jacob Westlund for their interest, support, and feedback on drafts. A special note of thanks goes to Julie, Poppy, and Tom Cooper—all of whom welcomed me with open arms into their home and without whom I would not have been able to reach the goal-line. Likewise, I am grateful to Sheryl, Mike, and the entire Wright family, who always offered me great friendship and helpful advice. My family offered me great reassurance, without which I would have often found myself lost. Moreover, I am so very appreciative for my New Zealand whānau (extended family). The list is surely too long to include here, but I would be remiss if I did not acknowledge their friendship, love, and support. Finally, and most especially, I thank my partner Jeremy, for his constant care, open ears, and saintly patience. In the end, I have gained not just a great deal of knowledge about the presented research topic and academic process generally, but most significantly about myself. I assume that this is the goal of the process and for this opportunity I am thankful. DIGITAL DIPLOMACY & SOCIAL CAPITAL v Table of Contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………..……ii Dedication……………………………………………………………….…………………………………………...………iii Acknowledgements………………………………………………….…………………………………………………...iv Table of Contents……………………………………………………………….………………………………………….v List of Tables & Figures...…………………………………………………….………………………………………..vii List of Abbreviations……………………………………………………………….…………………………………….xi Part 1: Theoretical Foundation & Research Methodology................................................................... 1 Outlining Key Assumptions & Objectives ............................................................................................. 11 Thesis Outline .................................................................................................................................................. 14 Chapter 1: Generating Social Capital via Relational Digital Diplomacy........................................ 15 1.1: The new public diplomacy and nuanced approaches ............................................................ 18 1.1.1: Towards a ‘Public’ Diplomacy: The Impact of Public Opinion ....................................... 19 1.1.2: A digital relational approach .................................................................................................... 28 1.1.3: Networks, ICTs, & diplomatic benefit ...................................................................................... 42 1.2: The social media revolution in public diplomacy .................................................................... 51 1.2.1: Avoiding biases & technological determinism in digital diplomacy ............................ 63 1.2.2: A note on actor network theory ................................................................................................ 75 Chapter 2: Relational Social Capital through Digital Diplomacy ..................................................... 82 2.1: Connecting social capital and public diplomacy ....................................................................... 88 2.2: Social capital & social media: the components of trust & reciprocity ............................. 92 2.3: Social capital and digital diplomacy .............................................................................................. 98 Chapter 3: Research Methodology & Methods Overview ............................................................... 105 3.1: Research design: case studies ....................................................................................................... 106 3.1.1: The United States & Israel: why these cases? .................................................................... 108 3.1.2: Ensuring rigor in the research design ................................................................................. 111 3.1.3: The research timeline ................................................................................................................ 113 3.2: Methods: collecting data & analysing the process ................................................................ 114 3.2.1: Archives, government documents, & media reports ....................................................... 115 3.2.2: Semi-structured interviews in Washington, D.C., Tel Aviv, & Jerusalem ................. 116 3.2.3: Cyber-ethnographic observation as a network member .............................................. 118 3.2.4: Operationalizing social capital & retracing data to theory test ................................ 123 3.3: Limitations ............................................................................................................................................ 126 Part 2: The Case Studies ................................................................................................................................ 129 DIGITAL DIPLOMACY & SOCIAL CAPITAL vi Chapter 4: Case Study 1—The United States of America ................................................................ 132 4.1: Out of isolation: US diplomacy from the progressive era to post-9/11 ....................... 136 4.2: New PD in the US: social capital, relationships, & digital diplomacy ............................ 147 4.3: Re-engaging the world with social media digital diplomacy ........................................... 158 4.3.1: The State department’s first forays in the digital realm