Freedom of Religion and Canada’s Commitments to Multiculturalism: A Critical Analysis of the Rights-based Approach by Howard Kislowicz A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Master of Laws Faculty of Law University of Toronto © Copyright by Howard Kislowicz 2009 Freedom of Religion and Canada’s Commitment to Multiculturalism: A Critical Analysis of the Rights-based Approach Howard Kislowicz Master of Laws Faculty of Law University of Toronto 2009 Abstract This thesis argues that the current Canadian approach to freedom of religion is inconsistent with Canada’s approach to multiculturalism. It begins by placing Canada’s multiculturalism legislation into the broader intellectual context of the leading political theories on the governance of diverse populations. It then examines the Canadian case law regarding freedom of religion, arguing that the prevailing rights-based approach produces consequences inconsistent with Canada’s legislated commitments to multiculturalism. It posits that the individualism of rights- based analysis, the pressure to frame religion in pre-defined ways, and the tendency of courts to speak in the language of tolerance are all troublesome. Further, it argues that when disputes are framed in terms of rights, meaningful dialogue is less likely and compromises are difficult to achieve. It then proposes an alternative, “difference-based” approach to disputes involving religion, which provides a framework more consistent with Canada’s multicultural ideals. ii Acknowledgments Thanks are due to my supervisor, Prof. Ayelet Shachar, for her guidance and comments throughout the research and writing of this thesis. Thanks as well to Prof. David Schneiderman for serving as second reader and providing helpful comments, and to Profs. Audrey Macklin, Jennifer Nedelsky and Anver Emon for stimulating and inspiring lectures. Many thanks also to Dr. Naomi Lear for her helpful suggestions and support. iii Table of Contents Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents........................................................................................................................... iv Chapter 1 Canadian Multiculturalism and Freedom of Religion.................................................... 1 1 Canadian Multiculturalism and Freedom of Religion................................................................ 1 1.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Overview of this Work........................................................................................................ 6 Chapter 2 The (Contested) Objectives of Multiculturalism............................................................ 9 2 The (Contested) Objectives of Multiculturalism........................................................................ 9 2.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 9 2.2 Political Theories of Multiculturalism.............................................................................. 10 2.2.1 Recognition, Identity and Dignity: Taylor............................................................ 11 2.2.2 Modus Vivendi: Jacob Levy’s Multiculturalism of Fear....................................... 16 2.2.3 Culture as context for freedom and choice: Kymlicka ......................................... 20 2.2.4 Universal values through cross-cultural dialogue: Parekh.................................... 23 2.2.5 Space for religious expression within the rule of law: McLachlin C.J................. 29 2.3 Strands of Multiculturalism Theories in Canadian Law................................................... 32 2.3.1 Federal Legislation................................................................................................ 32 2.3.2 Provincial Legislation ........................................................................................... 40 2.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 45 Chapter 3 Canadian Approaches through the Case Law .............................................................. 46 3 Canadian Approaches through the Case Law .......................................................................... 46 3.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................... 46 3.2 Shared Physical Spaces..................................................................................................... 47 3.2.1 Shared Ownership................................................................................................. 47 iv 3.2.2 The Character of Public Spaces ............................................................................ 52 3.2.3 Organizing Spaces: Zoning Disputes.................................................................... 57 3.3 Shared Institutions ............................................................................................................ 66 3.3.1 Town Councils and Legislatures........................................................................... 67 3.3.2 Courthouses........................................................................................................... 73 3.3.3 Schools.................................................................................................................. 76 3.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 97 Chapter 4 Legal Doctrine through the Multiculturalism Lens.................................................... 100 4 Legal Doctrine through the Multiculturalism Lens................................................................ 100 4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 100 4.2 The Individualism of Rights Analysis ............................................................................ 101 4.3 Avoiding Coercion.......................................................................................................... 108 4.3.1 The Controversial Unity of Rights Language..................................................... 110 4.3.2 Simplifying Complex People.............................................................................. 115 4.4 Tolerance......................................................................................................................... 118 4.4.1 The Marginalizing Tendencies of Tolerance ...................................................... 120 4.4.2 Tolerance as Mask .............................................................................................. 123 4.5 Hierarchies of Rights ...................................................................................................... 126 4.6 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 130 Chapter 5 Focus on Difference: A Way Out of the Rights Conundrum? ................................... 132 5 Focus on Difference: A Way out of the Rights Conundrum?................................................ 132 5.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 132 5.2 Minow’s Alternate Approach to Difference ................................................................... 133 5.3 Difference-Based Approaches in Practice: Freedom of Religion................................... 138 5.3.1 Shared Physical Spaces....................................................................................... 139 5.3.2 Shared Institutions .............................................................................................. 143 v 5.3.3 Process in General............................................................................................... 145 5.4 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 147 Chapter 6 Conclusion.................................................................................................................. 149 6 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................. 149 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 151 vi Chapter 1 Canadian Multiculturalism and Freedom of Religion 1 Canadian Multiculturalism and Freedom of Religion 1.1 Introduction Canada’s population is increasingly diverse. Its citizens and residents come from a multitude of backgrounds; they bear different national heritages, speak different languages, assert multiple cultural identities and adhere to many religions.1 In response to these social facts, the Canadian state has chosen to celebrate diversity in its Constitution and in other legislation. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms states that it “shall be interpreted in a manner consistent with the preservation and enhancement of the multicultural heritage of Canadians.”2 What’s more, unlike many other countries with diverse populations, Canada has enacted legislation