Whose Resources? Whose Common Good? Towards a New Paradigm of Environmental Justice and the National Interest in Indonesia Center for International Environment Law (CIEL) In collaboration with HuMa Perkumpulan untuk Pembaruan Hukum Berbasis Masyarakat dan Ekologis (Association for Community and Ecologically-Based Law Reform) Lembaga Studi dan Advokasi Masyarakat (ELSAM) (Institute for Policy Research and Advocacy), Indonesian Center for Environmental Law (ICEL), and International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) January 2002 Copyright page CONTENTS Acknowledgments ............................................................... vii Map of Case Study Locations ............................................ xiii Preface ...................................................................................xv List of Acronyms ................................................................ xix Glossary ............................................................................. xxiii Introduction: Natural Resources and Indonesia’s Budding Democracy .......................................................................... xxv Old States, Old Assumptions................................................ xxvii Summary of the Report .........................................................xxix Notes.......................................................................................xxxi I. Community-Based Property Rights: A Conceptual Note ..................................................................................... 1 Defining Community-Based Property Rights ............................ 3 Decentralization and Community-Based Property Rights ........ 6 Legal Recognition of Community-Based Property Rights ......... 7 Rethinking Property Rights......................................................... 8 Private Community-Based Property Rights ............................. 10 CBPR Tenure Instruments and Legal Personalities ................. 13 Promoting Enterprise Development ........................................ 14 Summary.................................................................................... 15 Notes.......................................................................................... 16 II. Unity in Diversity? Colonial and Post-Colonial Legal Legacies ............................................................................ 19 Village Governance under the Dutch State ............................. 20 iii WHOSE RESOURCES? WHOSE COMMON GOOD? Colonial Usurpation and Local Responses .............................. 21 Domain Declarations and the Agrarian Law of 1870 .............. 23 Redefining Territory and Resource Rights ............................... 25 Redefining the Village and Increasing State Intervention Following Independence ......................................................... 26 Independence, Adat, and the Constitution ............................. 31 Legal Recognition of Adat CBPRs Under Existing Laws ......... 32 New Order Resource Management and the New Domain Declarations .............................................................................. 35 Forest Resources (Including Estate Crops and Protected Areas) ........................................................................................ 36 Mining and Mineral Resources ................................................. 38 Fisheries and Coastal and Marine Resources .......................... 39 Perceptions and Uses of Natural Resources ............................ 42 Notes.......................................................................................... 44 III. In the Shadow of the State: National Law and Community-Based Institutions ....................................... 49 Factors Influencing Local Community/State Interactions ....... 50 Landscapes: Livelihoods and Markets ............................... 51 Mobility and Relations with Neighbors ............................. 52 Local Leadership ................................................................. 58 Types of Conflict....................................................................... 59 Timber and Plantations ...................................................... 59 Conservation and Tourism Development ......................... 64 Mining ................................................................................. 65 Marine and Coastal Resources ........................................... 67 Adverse Impacts of State-Controlled Resource Management .............................................................................. 71 Local Community-Based Management Capacities .................. 73 Notes.......................................................................................... 77 IV. Local Initiatives as Precedents for Recognition of Community Rights ........................................................... 83 Local Government Recognition of CBPRs and Local Management Practices .............................................................. 84 Recognition of Community Land-Use Systems in Spatial Plans .................................................................................... 85 Incorporation of Village Maps into Sub-Districts.............. 86 iv CONTENTS Recognition of Rattan Gardens Management Systems ..... 91 Declaration of Protected Area Community-Managed Zones ......................................................................................... 91 Lorentz National Park, West Papua ................................... 91 Tangkoko Nature Reserve, North Sulawesi ...................... 93 Lore Lindu National Park, Central Sulawesi...................... 94 Meru-Betiri National Park, East Java ................................. 95 Conflicts with Extraction: Recognition of Community Conflicts with Extraction: Recognition of Community Management Agreements ....................................................... 100 Tanggerang, Ketapang District, West Kalimantan .......... 100 Balai Semandang, Ketapang District, West Kalimantan ........................................................................ 101 Resak Balai and Tapang Sambas-Tapang Kemayau, Sanggau District, West Kalimantan .................................. 101 Empetai, Sanggau District, West Kalimantan .................. 102 Kotup, West Kalimantan .................................................. 102 Menjalin, West Kalimantan............................................... 102 Nain, North Sulawesi........................................................ 103 Building for the Future ........................................................... 104 Notes........................................................................................ 104 V. New States…New Assumptions? ................................... 107 Decentralization and Community Rights in the Post- Suharto Era .............................................................................. 111 The Forestry Bureaucracy ...................................................... 116 State Forests or Community Forests? ..................................... 118 Harbingers of Substantive Reform? ........................................ 120 Revised Basic Forestry Law .................................................... 123 Human Rights and Indigenous Peoples ................................ 124 Negotiating Options for Local Communities within “State Forests” .................................................................................... 127 Community Territorial Enclaves within State Forests ........... 128 Summary: The Past Not Yet Passed ....................................... 129 Notes........................................................................................ 129 VI. Towards a New Paradigm of Environmental Justice and the National Interest .............................................. 137 Whose Development? Whose Common Good? .................... 138 v WHOSE RESOURCES? WHOSE COMMON GOOD? Towards a New Paradigm of Environmental Justice ............ 139 Reinterpreting the Indonesian Constitution: Articles 18 and 33 ...................................................................................... 141 On-the-Ground Delineation of State Lands ........................... 145 Not by Adat Alone .................................................................. 148 Innovative Opportunities to Link CBPRs and Conservation ........................................................................... 150 Notes........................................................................................ 152 Conclusion ........................................................................... 155 About the Authors ............................................................... 159 Literature Cited .................................................................... 161 Appendix 1. Possible Forest Tenure Arrangements ........ 183 Appendix 2. Possible Arrangements for Community Rights in Natural Resource Management ............... 187 Appendix 3. Challenges of Adat Recognition: Notes from the Field ........................................................ 189 List of Boxes Box 1. Yosepha Alomang and Freeport McMoRan ...................... 39 Box 2. Treasures of the Forest, Bought with Blood (and How Manhattan Became English) .............................................. 54 Box 3: Rio Tinto: Global Operator and Global Compact Violator................................................................................ 67 Box 4. Community Mapping: Protecting CBPRs and Local Cultures ..............................................................................