Modernizing Major League Baseball: Using Fan Identification to Assess Rule Change Preferences Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Richard Laurence Bailey, M.S. Graduate Program in Kinesiology The Ohio State University 2019 Dissertation Committee Dr. Donna Pastore, Adviser Dr. Brian Turner Dr. Leeann Lower i Copyrighted by Richard Laurence Bailey 2019 ii Abstract Evaluating a sport’s fans perceptions and preferences has been an important aspect of sports research for many years. To make these evaluations many theoretical approaches have been used including; fan team identification (e.g., Wann & Branscombe, 1993), commitment (e.g., Mahony, Madrigal, & Howard, 2000), and loyalty (e.g., Backman & Crompton, 1991). These theories, and others, have been used to assess a variety of sport related phenomena such as game attendance choices (Wann & Branscombe, 1993), and expectations of referee performance (Gayton et al., 1998) among others. Ultimately, fan team identification was chosen as the focus of this study. Wann and Branscombe (1993) showed that a fan’s expectations of a team differ depending on their identification level. Additionally, the differences between individuals with low and high fan identification impact their consumption habits and behaviors. High identification has been found to have the biggest effect on enjoyment (Madrigal, 1995), and directly leads to the purchasing and consumption of more products (Fink, Trail, & Anderson, 2002). This study assessed fan identification and its influence on preferences for changes to rules in Major League Baseball (MLB) for individuals aged 18-24, an important demographic to capitalize on as baseball fans are aging and youth involvement in the iii sport has waned in recent years (Paul, 2017). All the rule changes chosen for this study have been either implemented in the minor or major leagues or have been discussed by fans, players, and media. A survey was designed and administered to undergraduate college students at a large midwestern university. These students were surveyed in their respective classrooms utilizing a convenience sample. The survey began asking demographic questions. The second section used Wann & Branscombe’s (1993) Sport Spectator Identification Scale in its entirety to create a mean identification score. Finally, the survey asked a Likert question, scaled one to eight, which said “To what extent would this rule improve MLB?” in regard to each rule changes. A panel of experts and a brief pilot study were utilized to evaluate the survey for content analysis and clarity. After reviewing the feedback and results some format and phrasing changes were made, and the full survey was administered. Overall, the study demonstrated that in some situations the level of fan identification was a statistically significant predictor of a fan’s preference to a rule change, specifically in regard to mound visits, starting extra-innings with a runner on second base, and the implementation of a pitch clock. Other demographic factors were at times statistically significant predictors as well including how many times an individual watches MLB per month, whether they participated in organized baseball or softball, and gender. Future research based on this line of inquiry can be used to evaluate other proposed rule changes, in any sport, and could focus on different demographics, such as iv older age groups, to help paint a more panoramic picture of what people are looking for in gameplay going forward. v Acknowledgments I am extremely grateful for the many people who helped me to get to this point. First, I want to thank my father, Richard W. Bailey who inspired me to learn something new every day and instilled in me the love of the law. Equally as important to my development was my mother, Laura J. Bailey, the kindest and most caring person I ever knew. She inspired me to be compassionate and showed me how helping others is the most rewarding type of work. I also want to thank my sisters, Cynthia Bailey Roberts and Pam Marinko, who I could always count on to be there for me, especially in difficult and trying times. Other important family member were my stepmother, Deborah Bailey, and my stepbrother, Mark Saunders, who looked out for me, cared for me and taught me to be inquisitive and tough. Thank you to all of you for your support. I also want to thank my friends and colleagues at Ohio State: Mickey Fraina, Chad Gerber, Sean Dahlin, Jim Evans, Mark Beattie, Daniel Wray, Carter Rockhill, Evan Davis, Ashley Ryder, Shea Brgoch, Lindsay Bond, and Danielle Daluisio). I also wanted to thank several other individuals who truly helped the process and provided significant contributions to this study (Dr. Mary Hums, and Ben Keller). Lastly, I want to thank the faculty at Ohio State I had the pleasure of working with. First, Dr. Sue Sutherland, thank you for being a great advisor and mentor and providing me with some terrific opportunities to grow and learn. Dr. Brian Turner also vi was instrumental in helping me find my passion within Sport Management and helping me to focus on theoretical development. Dr. Turner was the ideal committee member and helped push this project through to completion. I also want to thank Dr. Lee Lower who helped immensely with developing my quantitative skills as well as providing me wonderful opportunities to further my research in other areas. Finally, I want to especially thank Dr. Donna Pastore. She has been a wonderful advisor and mentor to me over the past few years and was instrumental to helping me find my passion in teaching and research. I will always be grateful for her help and guidance. vii Vita 2001……………………………………Dublin Coffman High School 2005……………………………………B.A. Political Science, The Ohio State University 2009……………………………………J.D. Barry University School of Law 2009 to 2015…………………………...Attorney at Law, Bailey & Slavin Law Firm, Bailey Law LLC 2015 to present…………………………Graduate Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University 2016…………………………………….M.S. Sport Management, The Ohio State University Field of Study Major Field: Kinesiology viii Table of Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. vi Vita ................................................................................................................................... viii List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 Background of the Problem ................................................................................................ 1 Technology and Creating Rules .......................................................................................... 3 Fan Identity and The Influence of Preference ..................................................................... 5 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................... 8 Spectator Perceptions of Technology and Rules .............................................................. 15 Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................... 21 Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 23 Definition of Terms........................................................................................................... 24 Overview of Remaining Chapters ..................................................................................... 26 Chapter 2. Review of Literature ....................................................................................... 27 Overview and history of identity theory ........................................................................... 27 How is Identity Theory Applied? ..................................................................................... 31 How has Identity Theory Been Used in the Sport Context? ............................................. 33 How Identity is Measured? Critique of Existing Scales and Measures ............................ 39 Chapter 3. Methods .......................................................................................................... 48 Population Characteristics/Sampling Method................................................................... 48 Scale Development ........................................................................................................... 50 Validity and Reliability ..................................................................................................... 55 Methods of Entering Predictors ........................................................................................ 56 Assumptions of Regression Analysis ............................................................................... 57 Recommended Data Collection/Analyses ........................................................................