ETHNOPALYNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS IN LAND AND WATER BASED ARCHAEOLOGY A Dissertation by DAWN MARIE MARSHALL Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY December 2007 Major Subject: Anthropology ETHNOPALYNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS IN LAND AND WATER BASED ARCHAEOLOGY A Dissertation by DAWN MARIE MARSHALL Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved by: Chair of Committee, Vaughn M. Bryant Committee Members, Shelley Wachsmann Luis Filipe M. Vieira de Castro James Manhart Head of Department, Donny Hamilton December 2007 Major Subject: Anthropology iii ABSTRACT Ethnopalynological Applications in Land and Water Based Archaeology. (December 2007) Dawn Marie Marshall, B.S., University of Wisconsin, Madison; M.A., Texas A&M University Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. Vaughn M. Bryant Ethnopalynology is a specialty within palynology that centers specifically on past and present palynological data related to humans. Palynological data may be a significant tool to archaeologists if the applications and limitations are clearly understood. The following is a compilation of historical references, information on the processing procedures used in pollen research, the types of samples that are appropriate for palynological analysis within the discipline of archaeology, and examples of how palynological data can answer some questions regarding diet, the environment, building materials and chronological data. An extensive literature review was performed and revealed incongruities and areas that could be improved upon. This dissertation is a result of that research. Experimentation with palynological processing procedures indicate that commonly used methodologies may be flawed and should be reviewed regularly. New methodologies in the dissolution of resins, or plant exudates, is a relatively new application for pollen research and an area where there is a potential for future growth. Palynological applications to archaeology are beginning to expand in iv previously unknown directions. The extrication of pollen from plant exudates or resin is only one new area of research. This and other avenues are still waiting to be explored. v DEDICATION For my husband, Andrew and my daughter, Isabel vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my committee chair, Dr. Vaughn M. Bryant and my committee members, Dr. Wachsmann, Dr. Castro, and Dr. Manhart for their support and guidance throughout the course of this research. Thank you also to my friends, colleagues, the department and the staff for making my time in the Anthropology Department at Texas A&M University a memorable experience. I also would like to extend my gratitude to Dr. Vaughn M. Bryant and Dr. David Carlson for financial support that assisted me in completing this degree. In addition I would like to thank Travis Davidson for all of his statistical expertise and help. Finally, I would like to thank my husband Andrew for following me to Texas, for supporting me, for all the nights he babysat so that I could finish, and for his undying faith in me. I also want to include a special thank you to Carol and Vaughn Bryant for their guidance, friendship and support and to my mom and dad and my family for their encouragement. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................. iii DEDICATION .......................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... v TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... vii LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................... xii LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... xv CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION................................................................................ 1 Terminology......................................................................................... 2 History of palynological applications to archaeology.......................... 3 Plants.................................................................................................... 5 Pollen sources....................................................................................... 6 Potential for fossil pollen recovery...................................................... 7 Sampling: terrestrial vs. water sites...................................................... 10 Extraction procedures........................................................................... 16 Analysis................................................................................................ 17 Palynological statistics......................................................................... 19 II TERMINOLOGY................................................................................. 22 Terminology used in palynology.......................................................... 22 Other botanical nomenclature.............................................................. 23 Palynology and ethnopalynology......................................................... 26 Ecology vs. palaeoecology................................................................... 33 III HISTORY OF PALYNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS TO ARCHAEOLOGY ............................................................................... 35 The microscope ..................................................................................... 35 viii CHAPTER Page History: archaeological applications of pollen in Europe.................... 35 History: archaeological applications of pollen in Near East................ 38 History: archaeological applications of pollen in North America........ 44 The Right Word: History of the word palynology............................... 48 History of the processing methodology............................................... 49 IV CHEMICALS AND BASIC POLLEN PROCESSING....................... 53 Palynological laboratory setting........................................................... 53 Laboratory............................................................................................ 53 Equipment............................................................................................ 55 Contamination...................................................................................... 56 Chemicals used in palynology laboratory............................................ 57 Acids vs. bases..................................................................................... 59 Screening.............................................................................................. 63 Decanting and swirling......................................................................... 64 Centrifugation....................................................................................... 66 Sonication............................................................................................. 67 Cellulose digestion by acetolysis......................................................... 67 The difference between acetolysis and acetylation .............................. 69 How acetolysis works........................................................................... 71 Sporopollin........................................................................................... 73 Heavy density separation ..................................................................... 75 Charcoal and charcoal removal............................................................ 76 Schulze’s solution and nitric acid......................................................... 84 Plant exudates (resin) and pollen......................................................... 85 Resin: a definition.......................................................................... 89 Experiments.................................................................................... 90 Methodology.................................................................................. 92 Plant exudates (resinous) materials/artifacts................................. 93 Resin from a mummy burial.......................................................... 94 Resin coated ceramics................................................................... 95 Chemical analysis of resin............................................................. 96 V PLANTS, POLLEN, SAMPLING AND INTERPRETATION .......... 98 Angiosperms and gymnosperms: a brief overview.............................. 98 Plants and pollen in archaeology.......................................................... 104 Economic plant examples..................................................................... 105 Pollen and seeds: domesticated vs. wild....................................... 109 Identification of pollen grains.............................................................. 113 ix CHAPTER Page New World maize and palynology................................................. 113 Old World cereals and palynology................................................. 114 Pollen production, dispersal and deposition......................................... 118 Pollen preservation..............................................................................