- 1 - | K e r k h o f Transvestite Knights: Men and Women Cross-dressing in Medieval Literature Debbie Kerkhof 3730387 Spring 2013 Supervisor: Dr. Paul Wackers - 2 - | K e r k h o f Table of Contents Introduction P. 3 Chapter 1: A Brief History of Clothing P. 6 Chapter 2: Historical Sources P. 17 Chapter 3: Cross-dressing Knights: Men P. 43 Chapter 4: Comedic Female Cross-dressing Knights P. 76 Chapter 5: Serious Female Cross-dressing Knights P. 96 Chapter 6: Final Comparisons P. 134 Appendix P. 145 Bibliography P. 147 - 3 - | K e r k h o f Introduction: Cross-dressing to deceive was frowned upon in medieval society, and was a topic of Church criticism by some very notable medieval thinkers and churchmen, yet it often found its way into literature. Despite the criticism behind cross-dressing in the medieval period, women masquerading as men and men dressed as women were present in reality as well as in medieval literature. There are tales of transvestite saints hiding in monasteries in order to escape persecution, and men disguising themselves as women for amusement or to get closer to women for sexual encounters. In reality, cross-dressing could be a great sin, but its inclusion in the plot of several medieval texts seems to show a disconnect between the medieval reality and the medieval imagination. Transvestite characters could be lauded and gain honour in their cross- dressing, yet in reality these characters would have been shunned and deemed as sinners, if moral and secular laws are taken into account. By looking at characters in French, German, and one English text from the 12th to the 15th centuries, it becomes clear that there were instances in which cross-dressing could be justified, as long as certain criteria were met. By understanding the medieval views of clothing, of sexuality, and the importance of intent, cross-dressing in medieval literature can be viewed as a positive aspect of medieval life, rather than the negative sin that Church criticism made it out to be. In this thesis, I will look at mainly French and German texts from the 12th to the 15th centuries which deal with the subject of cross-dressers in the decidedly masculine domain of the knight. There are many tales of cross-dressing, particularly of women, but the concept of men dressing as women while jousting, and women dressing as knights, brings up several questions about the clothes, what it meant to be male and female, and how cross-dressing could be viewed on the tournament field. The texts that will be studied are In the Service of Ladies by Ulrich von - 4 - | K e r k h o f Liechtenstein, Le Morte d’Arthur by Thomas Malory, Berengier au Long Cul, Der Borte by Dietrich von der Glezze, Le Roman de Silence by Heldris of Cornwall, and Yde et Olive. All of these texts come from three major parts of Europe, and are either in Old French, German, or Middle English. Church criticism from individuals such as Bernard of Clairvaux and Saint Jerome seems to indicate that the individuals cross-dressing in these texts were sinning against God, but a closer study reveals that there were instances in which cross-dressing could not only be tolerated but result in higher honour for the individual in medieval texts. These texts also reveal more about how clothing in particular was viewed and about the power of clothing to deceive, but also about the importance of intention behind cross-dressing. If the intent is noble, it is more likely that the cross-dresser will be accepted despite his or her actions. There are several other aspects of cross-dressing that arise from the study of these texts, such as the importance of hair and facial features when it came to cross-dressing, as well as the difference between how men could cross-dress as compared to women. Women tended to need more elaborate plots to deceive, and in none of the texts studied did a woman cross-dress to amuse others, but always with the ulterior motive of escaping sin or fixing a marriage. Men, however, could use cross-dressing as a jest and still be lauded with honour. The authors’ and narrators’ approaches to how the cross-dressed individual is sexed is also an important aspect of these texts, as it reveals more about medieval gender as well as the attributes that are distinctly seen as male or female in the medieval world. In the first chapter of this thesis, I give a brief introduction to the importance of clothing in the medieval period and discuss how clothing became symbolic of identity, which explains how cross-dressing could be viewed negatively as it was essentially a way to change a person’s identity completely. Clothes could indeed make a man due to the importance of their - 5 - | K e r k h o f symbolism. In the second chapter, I will look at certain primary sources that deal with cross- dressing and give an introduction to how it was approached in medieval reality. This also includes historical examples of cross-dressers and how their cross-dressing was viewed. In particular, the criticism of Church theologians such as Bernard of Clairvaux and Saint Jerome will be studied. The historical examples that are brought up in this section include the chronicle of Henry Knighton, an eyewitness account of a joust by Philip of Navarre, documentation of a court case of a cross-dresser, and a brief look at Joan of Arc’s trial. The third chapter deals with knights cross-dressing as women in In the Service of Ladies and Morte D’Arthur and explains how male cross-dressing was achieved and how it was approached. In the fourth chapter, I begin to deal with women who cross-dressed as knights, looking specifically at women who used their cross-dressing in order to fix their marriages, which resulted in a comedic view of cross-dressing that seems closer to the light-hearted way that men often cross-dressed. The texts studied in depth are Berengier au Long Cul and Der Borte. The fifth chapter looks at women who cross- dressed for an extended period of time in Le Romance de Silence and Yde et Olive. These two texts approach cross-dressing in a more serious manner than the previous texts, often invoking questions of theology and philosophy as a result of the characters’ successes as men despite being woman. In the final chapter I bring up similarities and differences that all the texts have and discuss how comparing them gives insight into the importance of clothing, gender, and intention behind cross-dressing. - 6 - | K e r k h o f Chapter 1 A Brief History of Clothing The history of clothing throughout the medieval period was varied and rich, and clothing became a focus of Church and secular criticism. This was in part due to the universality of clothing itself, but also to its importance in trade and in society. While clothing was a necessity of existence in most medieval European societies, on par with food and shelter, clothing can easily move from a necessity to a luxury when it becomes more exclusive. Christopher Berry lists clothing as one of the four essential needs, but points out that these needs become a luxury when “wants . specialize and particular the need”.1 High quality fabrics and specialized items of clothing elevated the status of clothing from a mere necessity. From the early medieval period to the end, the rise of the cloth industry and the emergence of what today is called “fashion” had a varied yet dramatic impact on how people dressed, not only throughout the classes but also in different countries. Looking at the history of clothing in the medieval period is a way to understand how clothing permeated many aspects of human life, eventually making it an important plot point in many examples of medieval literature, some of which will be discussed below. Medieval clothing was at the beginning of the period mostly functional. In the 9th, 10th, and 11th centuries, medieval clothing was loose fitting, allowing the wearers to move freely as they went about their daily tasks.2 Wool was the most common material for outer clothing due to its warmth and availability, though linen was also quite common. Various accessories and layers were used for functionality. Those working in the fields were more likely to wear layers, as they 1 Berry, Christopher. The Idea of Luxury: A Conceptual and Historical Investigation. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994. P. 10. 2 Willett, C. and Phillis Cunnington. Handbook of English Mediaeval Costume. London: Faber and Faber LTD., 1969. Pp. 7-26. - 7 - | K e r k h o f could peel them off or put them on if the weather turned hot or cold.3 Women as well as men wore side-less surcoats, so as to be able to reach their belts or money pouches that were on the inside of this garment. These surcoats were also convenient for women, since their loose manufacture allowed for women to wear them even when pregnant, and their large side openings made breast feeding much easier. This loose clothing was more universal than constricting styles as it could fit all body types, either male or female. Loose fitting clothing also fitted the medieval way of clothing manufacture, as only the rich could afford personal tailors, and the poor reused clothing or gave it to others until the clothing was worn out.