BEYOND THE BEAR NECESSITIES: A MIXED METHODS ANALYSIS OF THE CONFLICTS ARISING IN HUMAN–BLACK BEAR ENCOUNTERS by Kathryn Mazaika A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of George Mason University in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Conflict Analysis and Resolution Committee: ___________________________________________ Chair of Committee ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ Graduate Program Director ___________________________________________ Dean, School for Conflict Analysis and Resolution Date: _____________________________________ Spring Semester 2013 George Mason University Fairfax, VA Beyond the Bear Necessities: A Mixed Methods Analysis of the Conflicts Arising in Human–Black Bear Encounters A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at George Mason University By Kathryn Mazaika Masters of Science George Mason University, 1999 Masters of Studies in Environmental Law Vermont Law School, 1986 Bachelors of Science Antioch College, 1980 Director: Kevin A. Avruch, Professor School for Conflict Analysis and Resolution Spring Semester 2013 George Mason University Fairfax, VA Copyright 2013 Kathryn Mazaika All Rights Reserved ii DEDICATION This document and research are dedicated to human spirit and hope as it was embodied in my sister, Terry, and good friend, Sheila. Both Terry and Sheila fought personal battles with grace and dignity. Sheila was a great supporter throughout my graduate studies and as an animal lover and ravenous reader eagerly awaited the completion of my dissertation. Sadly, she and my sister didn’t live to see that day. I love and miss both of you. This research is also dedicated to the bears and other wildlife gripped in human conflict while they are just trying to survive. May their adaptability inspire reflection and adaptation in the communities whose space is increasingly shared. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Completing a dissertation requires a great deal of individual drive and endurance, but it is also a project whose success would not possible without the support and contributions of many others. And so it is only appropriate to share that success by acknowledging the many contributions. Early on when we were newly minted doctoral candidates, Agnieszka Paczynska provided the sage advice to choose a topic we really cared about because that care would carry us through the times when we were ready to be finished, but still had a long way to go. Through the hours and months of coding, analysis, and writing that care has indeed made a world of difference. Caring about the rise in human–wildlife conflicts and the communities struggling to deal with them made it easy to keep working. Thanks, Agnieszka! As my cohorts and I each embarked on our research journeys, we encountered bumps along the way, but the bumps were that much easier to navigate through the help and support these friends and colleagues extended. From designing forms to framing a research approach and then conducting the analyses, these conversations and shared resources helped me know I was not alone on this research journey. Thanks to my good friends and classmates Rob Ericson, Will Hall, Dena Hawes, Eleftherios Michael, Janice MacRae, Judie Messier, Ismael Muvingi, and Nina Spruill. As I delved further into the research and worked to incorporate ideas stretching beyond my discipline, numerous individuals were especially helpful and generous with their time. Thanks to Jerry Vaske for introducing me to the Potential for Conflict Index and for the support that you and Lori Shelby provided through two versions of the index and analyses. This research project includes a dimension that would have otherwise been absent; other conflict analysts in my field are now aware of and can use this tool in their work as well. Thanks to Lynn Rogers for helping me to understand black bear behavior and trusting me with your ideas as you strove to move your own discipline into new territory too. Thanks to all my friends in San Francisco who indulged me in stories of dissertating and bears. I hope that somehow those stories have left you with a greater understanding of black bears, and your times in bear country will be that much more exciting, and less scary. And yes, I have finally finished my “paper.” The research itself would not have been possible without the participants who gave generously of their time when they could have been relaxing and recreating in beautiful Lake Tahoe, or chasing bears and keeping them out of trouble. Thank you all for helping me understand what it is like to live with black bears and for sharing your ideas and suggestions for ways the various communities of the Tahoe area might live more peacefully with its ursine neighbors. iv A special thanks to my committee, especially Kevin Avruch for your willingness to chair an atypical ICAR research project, and without whose patience and continuing support the completion of this project would not have been possible. Thanks to Linda Kalof for joining the committee and providing her expert advice on animals in society. Your careful reading and supportive reviews let me know that my inferences were on track with both your experiences and your work with people and animal relations. Thanks to Sandy Cheldelin for infusing the research with curiosity and interest and in helping me complete this project. Special thanks also to Colleen Spears for her speedy and expert editing and to Blessing Joao for the deep massages that made it possible to sit for hours at the computer. None of the research would have been possible without the financial and spiritual support of my partner, Mark. Thanks for enduring the months and years of my absence while my nose was in a book or journal article, or I was tapping away on a computer, promising that I’ll be finished soon. And to our kitties, Amelia Aircat and Princess Colette, thanks for your company and for sharing your space with me while I worked. We finished with only a few “paw”dits and keys pried from the laptop. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page List of Tables .......................................................................................................................x List of Figures .................................................................................................................... xi Abstract ............................................................................................................................. xii 1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................1 1.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................1 1.2 Nature of Human–Wildlife Conflicts.......................................................................2 1.3 Background: Context of the Study ...........................................................................3 1.4 Problem Studied .......................................................................................................5 1.5 Statement of Purpose and Research Questions ........................................................6 1.6 Research Approach ..................................................................................................7 1.7 Assumptions .............................................................................................................8 1.8 The Researcher.........................................................................................................8 1.9 Rationale and Significance ......................................................................................9 2. Literature Review...........................................................................................................11 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................11 2.2 Organizing the Literature: Themes for Studying Human–Wildlife Interactions ...14 2.2.1 The Material World: Studying Bear Behavior ..............................................15 2.2.2 The Social World: Studying Human–Wildlife Interactions ..........................17 2.2.3 The Symbolic World .....................................................................................22 2.3 Wildlife Interventions ............................................................................................24 2.3.1 Changing Bear Behavior in Human–Wildlife Interactions ...........................24 2.3.2 Changing Human Behavior in Human–Wildlife Interactions ......................25 2.4 Interactions Between People about Wildlife and Black Bears ..............................28 2.4.1 Environmental Conflict Resolution: Past and Present ..................................28 2.4.2 Wildlife Management Incorporating ECR Approaches ................................29 2.5 Bridging Human–Wildlife and Human–Human Interactions in Wildlife Interactions .............................................................................................................31 2.5.1 Assessing Problems Arising Between Individuals and Wildlife ..................31 2.5.2 Assessing Problems Arising In Communities About Wildlife .....................33 2.6 Summary ................................................................................................................35 3. Methodology ..................................................................................................................36