This article was downloaded by: 10.3.98.104 On: 29 Sep 2021 Access details: subscription number Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: 5 Howick Place, London SW1P 1WG, UK The Routledge Handbook of Early Christian Art Robin M. Jensen, Mark D. Ellison Christian Sarcophagi from Rome Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315718835-3 Jutta Dresken-Weiland Published online on: 20 May 2018 How to cite :- Jutta Dresken-Weiland. 20 May 2018, Christian Sarcophagi from Rome from: The Routledge Handbook of Early Christian Art Routledge Accessed on: 29 Sep 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315718835-3 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR DOCUMENT Full terms and conditions of use: https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/legal-notices/terms This Document PDF may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproductions, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. 3 CHRISTIAN SARCOPHAGI FROM ROME Jutta Dresken-Weiland Because they are so numerous, Christian sarcophagi from Rome are the most important group of objects for the creation and invention of a Christian iconography. Although the produc- tion of Christian sarcophagi started only towards the end of the third century, later than cata- comb painting, the many surviving examples give a good impression of the development of early Christian imagery. More than 2,000 sarcophagi or fragments are preserved; their origi- nal number must have been many times higher.1 They are momentous testimonies for the Christianization of everyday life, which begins in the realm of the sepulchre. The role of laymen as the inventors of a peculiar and innovative iconography has to be stressed. The production of early Christian sarcophagi Early Christian sarcophagi were produced in the same way as pagan exemplars.2 Most sarcophagi were produced on commission. This was different for children’s sarcophagi, where half-finished and finished examples are known. The inscriptions of two Constantinian child sarcophagi men- tion that the child was buried three days after it had passed away, an interval in which it is not possible to produce a figural sarcophagusex novo.3 The nine-year-old Domitius Marinianus Florentius was buried in a half-finished sarcophagus that shows standardized elements, among them erotes (putti). The central image of the young deceased in a military costume was probably worked out on commission of his parents, because children are normally represented in “civil- ian” clothes.4 The sarcophagus of the five-year-old Aurelius, eques romanus, is a Constantinian frieze sarcophagus; here one may assume it was already finished to a large extent and only “indi- vidualized” by a portrait on the lid.5 Most probably, the early Christian sarcophagi of the city of Rome were produced in numer- ous small workshops, a sort of bazaar industry.6 Evidence in favor of this includes the surprisingly vast production in the Constantinian period, and the diversity and variety of individual pieces in relation to craftsmanship and elaborateness.7 No two sarcophagi are identical. This variety in style continues throughout the fourth century until the end of production of sarcophagi in the city of Rome. Painted sarcophagi are preserved only rarely; a painted sarcophagus with bucolic images, dated about 300 ce and preserved in the Museo Pio Cristiano, is very sophisticated and adapted for the semi-darkness of a burial chamber.8 39 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 07:08 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315718835, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315718835-3 Jutta Dresken-Weiland Figure 3.1 Fragment of an unfinished columnar sarcophagus, Rome, Catacomb of Marcellino e Pietro, second part of the fourth century (Rep. II 129). Photo: Archive Jutta Dresken-Weiland. Due to their production, there are three distinctive features of late Roman and early Christian sarcophagi. 1 Use of unfinished relief: Beyond unfinished busts of the deceased, known from pagan sarcophagi, early Christian sarcophagi differ from earlier pagan production by using relief that is not completed or completely worked out (Figure 3.1). This phenomenon was not new and occurred a few times during the late third century, becoming frequent in the fourth century. It certainly was not financially motivated, since a sarcophagus was expen- sive due to the costs of the marble and transportation. In comparison to these costs the expense for the relief was much lower. Since non-finished reliefs adorn even the arch of Constantine, this phenomenon must have been aesthetically and socially accepted. It can be found throughout the fourth century. 2 The traditional production of sarcophagi is from a marble block, but in Late Antiquity a sarcophagus could also be assembled from several pieces or slabs of marble. These are skillfully put together and sealed with lead.9 This method can also be observed on pagan, “neutral,” and undecorated late Roman sarcophagi,10 and has systematically been examined only for the city of Arles so far.11 It seems likely that there was not enough marble for the production of sarcophagi, so the material at hand had to be used in an optimal way; maybe the popularity of marble sarcophagi in the fourth century contributed to the shortage of material. The reuse of architectural elements for sarcophagi can be observed already in the imperial period.12 3 Less-skilled workmanship is evident, even in pieces of high quality. For example, the figure of Paul on the upper zone of the sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, second scene from the left, is not standing steadily on his feet but slanting and nearly toppling over (see Figure 18.5).13 On the city-gate sarcophagus of Milan the artisans obviously had difficulties fitting the 40 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 07:08 29 Sep 2021; For: 9781315718835, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315718835-3 Christian sarcophagi from Rome twelve apostles in the space available on the front and back: On the front, the outermost figures are extremely slender, on the back they seem to glide from their seats.14 No other sarcophagus of the late fourth century exhibits such a mass of figures and is so lavishly worked out on all four sides; the sculpting emphasizes the abundance of elegant details over the completion of a harmonic whole. Roman sarcophagi were exported into the regions of modern Italy, France, and Spain from Constantinian times until the end of Roman sarcophagus production in general. In Dalmatia, only examples from the later fourth and the end of the fourth century are preserved;15 the few sarcophagi findings in Algeria and Tunisia date from the fourth century.16 From the East of the Roman Empire we do not have any Christian sarcophagi produced in the city of Rome. Buyers and commissioners The price of sarcophagi was high, and it is clear that they were a luxury good and only accessible for a well-to-do clientele.17 Their inscriptions inform us about the names and social rank of the buyers and mark an important change: Among the early Christian sarcophagi buyers, members of the upper class can be found more often than in pagan sarcophagi in the second and third centuries. Obviously marble sarcophagi were favored by people ennobled by Constantine; as social climbers, they were intensely interested in a traditional form of sepulcher updated with Christian images.18 The buyers were laymen; clerics never chose marble sarcophagi with Christian reliefs for burial until the end of the fourth century. The sarcophagus of bishop Concordius of Arles, (late fourth century) is the first known example.19 But it was, as the iconography shows, originally produced for a couple, and must have been handed over for the bishop’s interment.20 A lid frag- ment21 of a . pus episcopus cannot be dated more precisely than fourth–fifth century; nothing can be said about the chest and its possible decoration.22 For these reasons, it is clear that the iconography of these sarcophagi was invented and created by laymen.23 Dating, sarcophagus types, and chronology The beginning of the production of Christian sarcophagi in the late third century can be dated by comparison with contemporary pagan sarcophagi and with dated monuments. Before this, Christians chose the same images as their pagan contemporaries. Some pagan sarcophagi are pro- vided with a Christian inscription. The first known example is the sarcophagus of Prosenes.24 At first, Christian images were limited to a few themes.25 Christian images probably first appeared on the lids, whereas the chests, more difficult to produce, kept traditional images.26 While the choice of Christian themes generally implies a positive attitude towards Christianity, the use of pagan or neutral images does not necessarily indicate a pagan buyer.27 The relatively late appear- ance of Christian images on Roman sarcophagi may be explained by their highly traditional and conservative character. It took until the end of the third century, when Christianity was sufficiently widespread among a well-to-do group, before the wish arose for an adequate ico- nography, peculiar to this group (Figure 3.2). The historic reliefs of the arch of Constantine (312–315), whose workshops were also active in the production of sarcophagi, are of particular importance. They mark the beginning of the most intensive period of sarcophagus production in the first third of the fourth century.