Education Hubs in the Making: Policy Rationales and International Relations by Jack Tsung-Ying Lee A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education Ontario Institute for Studies in Education University of Toronto © Copyright by Jack T. Lee 2014 Education Hubs in the Making: Policy Rationales and International Relations Jack T. Lee Doctor of Philosophy Department of Leadership, Higher and Adult Education Ontario Institute for Studies in Education University of Toronto 2014 Abstract Since the late 1990s, several governments worldwide have launched initiatives to transform their countries into education hubs in order to attract large numbers of foreign students, scholars, education providers, research institutes, and multinational companies. While many observers consider these initiatives as entrepreneurial projects typical of cross-border education, a proper analysis demands a closer examination of the multiple realities of education hub development and their implementation challenges. This thesis investigates the development of Malaysia, Singapore, and Hong Kong as education hubs. The research examines national initiatives as well as those that are specific to an economic zone (EduCity Iskandar) and a discipline (Islamic finance education hub). What are the rationales driving the development of theses education hubs? What patterns of engagement are evident as these societies forge regional and international ties through higher education? Through policy document analysis and interviews with 36 policymakers and 42 context informants, this study has identified four key rationales: 1) economic benefits, 2) ii talent development, 3) educational capacity, and 4) soft power. Each rationale generates specific policy objectives and implementation strategies. While Malaysia is keen to generate revenue through student fees and improve its quality of education by injecting competition, Singapore is eager to commercialize research innovations and develop talent in all forms (local, foreign, and diaspora). In contrast, Hong Kong remains skeptical of the economic benefits of an education industry and instead emphasizes talent development while cultivating local institutions. All three societies also aim to exert influence regionally and internationally though ties based on cultural heritage or networks with leading experts (i.e., soft power). These efforts meld a realist approach to international relations with neoliberalism and social constructivism. Nevertheless, serious contextual factors such as the prevailing political climate, deepening ethnic divisions, and the lack of academic freedom present challenges to the development of education hubs. iii Acknowledgments Many individuals have contributed to my intellectual and professional development to make this dissertation possible. Foremost, I would like to thank my thesis committee members. To my incomparable supervisor, Dr. Ruth Hayhoe, I thank you for your penetrating insights on comparative education and commitment to my success. You have impressed me with your generosity as a scholar, a mentor, and a human being. To Dr. Jane Knight, I am forever grateful for your sharp analytical views, energy, and sense of humor. Without your guidance and marathon meetings, this project would have floundered during the proposal stage. To Dr. Glen Jones, I thank you for refining my thinking and writing to ensure greater clarity. I would also like to recognize the following OISE faculty members for their intellectual influence on my work and support of my research interests: Dr. Karen Mundy, Dr. Linda Muzzin, Dr. Vandra Masemann, and Dr. Tricia Seifert. I am grateful to Dr. Simon Marginson, my external examiner, for his insightful review of this thesis and encouragement of my work. The fieldwork for this dissertation was exhilarating despite the inconvenience of a sprained ankle in Malaysia and an eye infection in Singapore. I am indebted to the nearly 100 people who carved time out of their busy schedules to meet with me for an interview or informal discussion. Thanks to their kindness, I found myself in places and situations I had never imagined for my fieldwork: the stately halls of the Prime Minister’s Office (Malaysia) and Chief Executive’s Office (HKSAR), luncheons with Islamic scholars, and tea with university presidents. For Malaysia, I am grateful for the hospitality provided by Dr. Morshidi Sirat, Myrna Damayanti Miraj, Wan Saifuddin, Chan Goang Yet, and Eric Tan. In Singapore, I benefitted from the support of Dr. Wing-On Lee, who provided me with a temporary office at the National Institute of Education, and Dr. Jason Tan and Dr. Benjamin Wong, who offered moral support. For Hong Kong, I would like to thank Mark Thomsen for letting me crash on his sofa for two months. Every dissertation requires a team of therapists and jesters. At OISE, I have met a wonderful group of friends who provided valuable mental support, intellectual stimulation, and laughter. Patricia Gaviria, Pierre Piche, Meggan Madden, and Merli iv Tamtik deserve special recognition for making this journey memorable. I also cherish the unconditional support provided by Eunsook Park, Rakhat Zholdoshalieva, Wesley Chiang, Julian Weinrib, Alice Chow, Kara Janigan, Derek Grosso, and Joe Wu. I want to acknowledge the contributions of two people at the University of British Columbia who cultivated my interest in international higher education. To Dr. Pierre Walter, who sparked my interest in comparative education as my master degree advisor, I am grateful for your tireless support and commitment to learning and social justice. To my former boss Mackie Chase, Director of the Centre for Intercultural Communication, I thank you for mentoring me for nearly a decade and demonstrating intercultural exchanges in real life through humility and grace. This dissertation required one year of analysis and writing in sanctuaries scattered across two countries. In addition to cafes, libraries, airplanes, trains, and hotels, my sister’s house in Halifax allowed me to transcribe many interview recordings. Half of the thesis was written in a small town in Norway thanks to Bjørn Oppegaard’s encouragement, wit, and grueling cross-country skiing training. The second half of the thesis was written in Vancouver thanks to my parents’ patience. I would also like to thank three important people from my formative years. Mrs. Marie Kendrick, Mrs. Jeannie Wolfe, and Mrs. Arleen Porter “adopted” me when I arrived at an elementary school in Ohio not able to string together a sentence in English. Without their care during this critical period, I could not have built a foundation for further academic work or gained an early appreciation for intercultural communication and comparative education. Finally, this dissertation is a tribute to my parents’ foresight in finding a better environment to raise kids. I am grateful for their dedication toward lifelong learning and their sacrifices for the sake of my future. This dissertation is dedicated to my 93-year-old grandmother, Lee Chuan. In the process of overcoming poverty in rural Taiwan, raising three children as a single mother, and toiling as a successful midwife for 40 years, she defied cultural and professional norms. Her fortitude continues to inspire me to reach greater heights. v Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................ iv Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 The Internationalization of Higher Education .......................................................... 1 The Education Hub Concept ..................................................................................... 4 The Research Sites .................................................................................................... 5 Purpose ....................................................................................................................... 9 The Research Problem ............................................................................................ 10 Significance of the Study ........................................................................................ 13 Organization of the Thesis ...................................................................................... 15 Chapter 2: Literature Review ...................................................................................... 18 Internationalization of Higher Education ............................................................... 18 Definitions ........................................................................................................................... 20 Rationales ........................................................................................................................... 23 Cross-Border Education Strategies ..................................................................................... 27 Education Hubs ................................................................................................................... 32 International Relations Theory ................................................................................ 41 Realism ..............................................................................................................................