Contents Author’s Note ........................................................................................ 13 Introductory Remarks ............................................................................ 19 PART I. FROM THE ENLIGHTENMENT TO ROMANTICISM ..................... 27 Chapter 1: Trends and Tendencies in Enlightenment Thought ..... 29 Introductory Remarks: The Paradoxes of Westernization .................... 30 Catherine II and Enlightenment Philosophy ......................................... 43 The Emergence of Professional Enlightenment Philosophy................. 52 Nikolai Novikov and Freemasonry ....................................................... 57 Mikhail Shcherbatov and the Aristocratic Opposition ......................... 69 Chapter 2: The Culmination of the Enlightenment in Russia: Aleksandr Radishchev ........................................................................ 79 Radishchev’s Life .................................................................................. 79 Radishchev’s Social Philosophy ........................................................... 83 Radishchev’s Views on Ethics and Education ...................................... 88 Radical Reform or Revolution? ............................................................ 90 The Treatise on Immortality ................................................................. 93 Chapter 3: Political Philosophy in the Age of Alexander I ............. 97 Projects of International Order .............................................................. 100 The Liberal Conceptions ....................................................................... 106 Nikolai Karamzin and Conservatism .................................................... 112 The Decembrists .................................................................................... 118 The Northern Society ...................................................................... 119 Nikolai Turgenev ............................................................................ 122 The Southern Society ...................................................................... 123 The Society of United Slavs............................................................ 126 The Decembrist Philosophy of Russian History ............................. 127 The Decembrists’ Place in the History Of Russian Thought ......... 129 Chapter 4: Anti-Enlightenment Trends in the Early Nineteenth Century ............................................................................. 131 Mysticism .............................................................................................. 132 The Ideology of an Anti-Philosophical Crusade ................................... 134 The Wisdom-Lovers and Russian Schellingianism .............................. 136 6 Ivan Kireevsky’s Young Years, or the West-Inclined Version of Philosophial Romanticism .................................................................... 143 PART II. THE REIGN OF NICHOLAS I ................................................... 145 Chapter 5: Petr Chaadaev and Religious Westernism .................... 147 Chaadaev’s Metaphysics and Philosophy of History............................ 148 Russia’s Past and Future ....................................................................... 151 Chaadaev’s First Philosophical Letter ............................................ 151 Apology of A Madman ................................................................... 154 Toward Ecumenism .............................................................................. 156 Chaadaev’s Place in Russian Intellectual History ................................ 158 Converts of The Age of Nicholas: Ivan Gagarin and Vladimir Pecherin .................................................... 159 Chapter 6: The Slavophiles and Other Versions of Anti-Westernism 167 The Slavophile Philosophy of History and Social Ideals ..................... 168 The Concept of the “Integral Personality” and “New Principles in Philosophy” ........................................................................................... 174 Slavophile Ecclesiology ........................................................................ 179 Slavophilism as Conservative Utopianism ........................................... 183 The Ideology of “Official Nationality” ................................................. 186 Tyutchev’s Imperial Vision................................................................... 191 The Evolution of Slavophilism at the Time of Great Reforms ............. 194 Chapter 7: The Russian Hegelians: From “Reconciliation with Reality” To “Philosophy of Action” .................................................. 201 Nikolai Stankevich ................................................................................ 202 Mikhail Bakunin .................................................................................... 204 Vissarion Belinsky ................................................................................ 206 Philosophical Evolution .................................................................. 207 Aesthetic and Literary Critical Views............................................. 212 Aleksandr Herzen .................................................................................. 215 Chapter 8: Belinsky and Different Variants of Westernism........... 223 Belinsky’s Westernism.......................................................................... 224 Ancient and Modern Russia ............................................................ 224 Narodnost’ And Natsional’nost’ In Literature ............................... 226 The Polemic with Maikov ............................................................... 230 The Dispute over Capitalism .......................................................... 232 7 The Liberal Westernizers ...................................................................... 234 Timotei Granovsky ......................................................................... 235 Konstantin Kavelin ......................................................................... 236 Boris Chicherin .............................................................................. 237 Chapter 9: The Petrashevtsy .............................................................. 241 Social and Political Ideas of the Petrashevtsy ....................................... 241 Philosophical Ideas of the Petrashevtsy ................................................ 246 Chapter 10: The Origins of “Russian Socialism” ............................ 251 The Evolution of Herzen’s Views ......................................................... 251 The Crisis of Belief ......................................................................... 251 The Concept of “Russian Socialism” .............................................. 254 The Destiny of the “Old World” ..................................................... 260 Freedom and Necessity ................................................................... 264 To an Old Comrade ......................................................................... 268 Nikolai Ogarev ...................................................................................... 273 PART III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES OF THE REFORM AND COUNTERREFORM PERIOD .......................................................... 277 Chapter 11: Nikolai Chernyshevsky and the “Enlighteners” of the Sixties ............................................................................................ 279 Chernyshevsky’s Anthropological Materialism ................................... 282 Biographical Note ........................................................................... 282 Aesthetics ........................................................................................ 286 The Anthropological Principle ........................................................ 290 Russia’s Future Development ......................................................... 293 Chernyshevsky’s Place in the History of Russian Thought ............ 295 Nikolai Dobroliubov and the Dispute over the “Superfluous Men” .... 299 Dmitry Pisarev and “Nihilism” ............................................................. 306 Critics of the “Enlighteners”: Apollon Grigoriev and Nikolai Strakhov ................................................................................... 312 Reactions to the “Enlighteners” in Spiritual Academies: Pamphil Yurkevich and Fyodor Bukharev ........................................... 318 Chapter 12: Conservative Ideologies after the Land Reform ........ 329 Mikhail Katkov ..................................................................................... 331 Ivan Aksakov and Nikolai Danilevsky ................................................. 337 Konstantin Pobedonostsev .................................................................... 345 8 Konstantin Leontiev .............................................................................. 348 Chapter 13: Populist Ideologies ......................................................... 359 Introduction ........................................................................................... 359 From “Go to the People” to the “People’s Will” .................................. 362 Petr Lavrov ............................................................................................ 372 Biographical Note ........................................................................... 372 The Historical Letters