Middlesex University Research Repository An open access repository of Middlesex University research http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk Khattak, Shabana Gul (2014) Silent voices, untold stories: perceptions of female students towards their own experiences and higher educational opportunities in Peshawar, Khyber Pukhtunkhwah (KP) (Pakistan). PhD thesis, Middlesex University. [Thesis] Final accepted version (with author’s formatting) This version is available at: https://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/13701/ Copyright: Middlesex University Research Repository makes the University’s research available electronically. Copyright and moral rights to this work are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners unless otherwise stated. The work is supplied on the understanding that any use for commercial gain is strictly forbidden. A copy may be downloaded for personal, non-commercial, research or study without prior permission and without charge. 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See also repository copyright: re-use policy: http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/policies.html#copy Silent Voices, Untold Stories: Perceptions of Female Students towards their own Experiences and Higher Educational Opportunities in Peshawar, Khyber Pukhtunkhwah (KP) (Pakistan) Shabana Gul Khattak Middlesex University (London) PhD 2014 Silent Voices, Untold Stories: Perceptions of Female Students towards their own Experiences and Higher Educational Opportunities in Peshawar, Khyber Pukhtunkhwah (KP) (Pakistan) A thesis submitted to Middlesex University in Partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Shabana Gul Khattak School of Health and Education Middlesex University (London) Dedicated to my great feminist father (Shamaas Gul Khattak) my first love, my inspirations and my strength, my Sonerin supported me lovingly throughout my life ABSTRACT The aim of this thesis is to investigate factors relating to the low level of women’s participation in higher education in Khyber Pukhtunkhwah a particularly conservative and traditionalist region of Pakistan, adjoining Afghanistan. The province of Khyber Pukhtunkhwah has a culture, language, traditions and patriarchal values that are substantially different from the rest of the country. There is a chronically low participation rate in higher education by women (6.55%) as opposed to men (28.44%). For this research, a mixed methods approach was used founded on Marxist and Islamic Feminist research paradigms, interviewing and questioning students in four higher education institutes in Peshawar, Pukhtunkhwah, using a research design that included both quantitative and qualitative methods. The data analysis reveals that the women who succeed in entering higher education actually have social / economic advantages; they are in general from the elite and the upper middle classes. However, even they face problems relating to the particularly conservative understandings and practices of Islam that are culturally specific to Pukhtunkhwah/ Pukhtun culture as these were dominant in forming their decisions rather than the actual teachings of Islam. Attitudes towards women’s work and the language of instruction used in their education had implications for their educational opportunities Women of all economic classes had difficulty with being allowed to reach decisions on their own: they had to seek approval from their families, particularly from their male relatives. Men (and women) misinterpreted the teachings of religion, in other words they ‘culturalised’ Islam instead of Islamising the culture. One of the aims of this thesis is ‘Breaking the Silence: Listening to Pukhtun Women’. This thesis does this as it gives voice to (a number of) Pukhtun women, concerning their lives, hopes, anticipations, relating to education and career. However, this is just a beginning and much more research needs to occur in order to allow better understanding of the lives and aspirations of women in this area of Pakistan. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the name of Allah the Most Gracious the especially Merciful All praises be to Rabbul Alameen (Master of the universe), the Cherisher, Sustainer, Who bestowed upon me the strength to complete my research work. Without Him I would be nothing. I am extremely indebted to my supervisors, Dr. Gillian Hilton and Dr. Leena Robertson who always extended help and co-operation in the completion of this research and provided guidance and encouraged me, without their help I would not be able to complete this work. They stood by me and supported me academically, morally and spiritually. I am proud to have them who generously bestowed their precious time and attention towards me. I also declare a very special thanks to Dr. Dave Hill for his time, valuable suggestions and feedback and encouragement. I would like to express my gratitude to Diana Luheshi, she not only proof-read my first draft and gave me very valuable suggestions for the subject matter and content of my dissertation. My profound thanks to CARA, without their support this project remained incomplete. The least I could say is that mere thanks cannot do justice to their support and co-operation. Particular thanks and appreciation are offered to family members and friends for their encouragement and help during the course of study, especially to my Sonerin (my Baba) his unmatchable love and his belief that I could complete this thesis. I would also express wish to my gratitude to my sample colleges and their principals, teaching and admin staff who helped me in one way or the other in the completion of this study. My thanks go to all my sample women who gave generously of their time to answer questions; they are the true spirit of this study. Shabana Shamaas Gul Khattak 7th June 2013 CONTENTS Abstract Acknowledgements Table of Contents CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1-21 1.1 Statement of the Problem 1 1.2 Aims of the Study 12 1.3 Main Questions of the Research 16 1.4 The Structure of Further and Higher Education 16 in Pakistan 1.5 Definition of Culture for this Study 17 1.6 Contribution to Knowledge 19 1.7 Dissertation Outline 20 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 23-73 THEORIES OF GENDER, EDUCATION, AND THE SOCIO-CULTURAL BACKGROUND OF PAKISTAN 2.1 SECTION I 23 Gender and Higher Education: Global Perspective 2.1.1 Introduction 23 2.1.2 What is Gender? 24 2.1.3 Why Gender has a Problem? 25 2.1.4 Feminist Theories of Education 27 2.1.5 Liberal Feminism 28 2.1.6 Marxist/Socialist Feminism 32 2.1.7 Radical Feminism 38 2.1.8 Islamic Feminism 40 2.1.9 Gender and Higher Education 43 2.1.10 Gender Equity in Higher Education 45 2.1.11 Women born for Care-giving Roles 48 2.1.12 The Problems and Prospects of Co-Education 49 2.1.13 Women and Professional Careers 51 2.1.14 Concluding Comments 52 2.1.15 Summary 52 2.2 SECTION II 53 Pakistan: An Overview and the Issues of Gender 2.2.1 Introduction 53 2.2.2 Contextual Background 53 2.2.3 Education and Literacy 54 2.2.4 Brief Historical Summary of Women’s 54 Education in the Subcontinent 2.2.5 The Language of Instructions 57 2.2.6 The Social/Economic Class System in Pakistan 59 2.2.7 The University Structure in Pakistan 60 2.2.8 The Concept of the Women’s University 61 2.2.9 The Complexities of Masculinity and Femininity 62 in Pakistan 2.2.9.1 Poverty: A Women’s face in Pakistan 62 2.2.9.2 Socio-cultural Imprisonment 62 2.2.9.3 The Dilemma of Social Security 64 2.2.9.4 Disparity in Socio-economic Status 65 2.2.9.5 Injustice in Education 67 2.2.10 Gender, Islam and Education 69 2.2.11 Concluding Comments 72 2.2.1.12 Summary 73 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 74-101 3.1 Introduction 74 3.2 Introduction of My ‘Self’ 74 3.3 Problems of My Research 78 3.4 The Main Research Questions 79 3.5 Research Methodology 80 3.6 Developing a Methodological Framework 85 3.7 Feminists Epistemology 86 3.8 My Study Plan of Action 89 3.9 Feminist Research… 90 3.10 Sampling Strategies 91 3.11 Designing of the Questionnaires 92 3.12 The Semi-Structured and Focused-interviews 95 3.13 Data Analysis 96 3.14 Access to Sample College and Confidentiality 97 3.15 The College’s Context 98 3.16 Validity and Reliability 99 3.17 Concluding Comments 100 3.18 Summary 101 CHAPTER 4 PRESENTATION OF DATA 102-46 UNTOLD STORIES OF THE SAMPLE WOMEN 4.1. Introduction 102 4.2. Section I: Initial Survey 103 4.3. Section II: The Structured-Interviews 110 4.4. Section III: The Audit Survey 117 4.5. Section IV: The Post-Survey 134 4.6. Section V: The Focused Interviews 142 4.7. Concluding Comments 146 4.8. Summary 146 CHAPTER 5 DATA ANALYSIS 148-90 FOCUSING ON WOMEN OWN VOICES 5.1 Introduction 148 5.2 Economic class: Education for Money or for 149 Status Symbol? 5.3 Where to Find a Role-Model in the Family and 152 Society? 5.4 Dual Language of Instructions 146 5.5 Higher Education verses Work 158 5.6 Early Marriages, Children and Higher Education 159 5.7 Dowry for Daughters and Learning for Lads 162 5.8 You really mean daughters are diamonds? 163 5.9 Position of Professional Women in the Society 164 5.10 The Prospects of Pukhtun Women for their 166 Future..