CERTIFICATION I, Glenda Lynna Anne Tibe-Borufacio, declare that this thesis, submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Doctor Philosophy, in the School of History and Politics, University of Wollongong, is wholly my own work tmless otherwise referred or acknowledged. The document has not been submitted for qualifications at any other academic institution. GLENDA LYNNA ANNE TIBE-BONIFACIO 26 August 2003 Ill TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapters Page I Infroduction A. Background of the Study 1 1. Objectives 2. Significance of the Study B. Review of Related Studies 4 1. Filipino Women and Migration 2. Migrant Women and Citizenship C. Methodology 12 1. Research Instrument 2. Research Locale 3. Respondents 4. Short Biographies D. Chapter Summary 25 II Theoretical Premises: Gender, Race and Citizenship 27 III Stracturing Citizenship: Philippines and Australia A. Constmct of Filipino Women: East-West Paradigmatic Mix 41 1. Women in Pre-colonial Philippines 2. Women and Spanish Colonialism 3. Women and American Rule 4. Women m Post-Independence Philippines B. Migration and Citizenship in Australia 74 1. Racial and Gender Biases in Immigration 2. Ausfralian Citizenship C. Conclusion 89 IV Becoming Australian Citizens: In Search of Political Space A. Filipina Migration to Australia 92 B. Shaping the Practise of Australian Citizenship 98 C. Reasons for Becoming Austrahan Citizens 103 D. Conclusion 121 V Practising Ausfrahan Citizenship at Home A. The Home 123 B. Relationships with Husbands 125 1. Filipmas in Bi-cultural Homes 2. Filipinas in Filipino Homes 3. Domestic Violence C. Relationships with Children 134 1. Discipline 2. Formation of Values D. Conclusion 139 VI Practising Ausfrahan Citizenship at Work A. Immigrant Women and the Australian Labour Market 142 B. Filipinas and Work-Related Issues 144 1. Recognition of Overseas Qualifications 2. Underemployment 3. Racial Discrimination C. Other Constraints 160 1. Gender Roles 2. Social Constmct of 'Filipina' D. Conclusion 168 VII Practising Australian Citizenship in the Community A. School Participation 170 B. Community Organizations 173 1. Role of Community Associations 2. Type of Activities 3. Issues C. Voting Choices 196 D. Conclusion 203 VIII Australian Citizenship and Filipino Identity A. Multiculturalism, Citizenship and Identity 205 B. Filipino Identity and Australian Citizenship 214 1. The 'Filipino' and 'National' Identity 2. Filipino Identity and Becoming Australian Citizens: 'Practising My Filipino Way' C. Conclusion 230 IX Summary and Conclusion 232 Bibliography 241 Appendices 282 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS APA Australian-Philippine Association BIMPR Bureau of Immigration, Multicultural and Population Research BIR Bureau of Immigration Research CFI Club Filipino lUawarra DIEA Department of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs DIMA Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs IFWG Illawarra Filipino Women's Group NESB Non-English Speaking Backgrotmd VI ABSTRACT This research examined the meaning and practise of Australian citizenship in the lives of migrant Filipino women in Australia. It utilized the life story approach and participant observation in Sydney and Wollongong. The narratives were analysed using a combination of feminist theoretical models of women's citizenship to underscore the different ways they constmct a political space in negotiating their subject position as wives, mothers, paid workers, volunteers, electors, and members of community groups. Filipino women have a high valuation of Australian citizenship. Their motivations to become Australian citizens are not only based on the practical benefits derived from that status vis a vis retaining thefr Philippine citizenship but also the idea of belonging to the Australian community. They have employed their understanding of Australian citizenship to empower themselves in their personal and professional lives. This research explored three spaces where Australian citizenship is practised - the home, the workplace, and the commtmity. Women in both Filipino homes and bi- cultural homes have made use of their knowledge of Australian citizenship in their relationships with their husbands and children. Those tmdertaking paid work have actively sought to participate in the economic benefits of citizenship although their entry into the labour market has been marked by stmctural and social constraints such as non-recognition of overseas qualifications, racism and sexism. In the community, the women are engaged in citizenship practice as volunteers in local schools and in community associations. Their participation in varied activities is mutually beneficial - enhancing their personal confidence and potentials and at the same time contributing to the needs of others. Filipino women have dual identities- a Filipino identity and an Australian identity as citizens. These two identities coexist in their lives. A Filipino identity is directed towards a particular social unit, the family; while an Australian identity is directed towards an abstract state perceived to be multicultural. They embrace an 'Australian' identity through shared experiences such as language and democratic practices. Vll In a racially structured society, Australian citizenship offers a common political identity by which immigrant Filipino women equalize their racialised status with 'white' Australians. Becoming an Australian citizen provides them with the means to become active agents of change in thefr own way. Vlll ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The University of Wollongong through the International Postgraduate Research Scholarship has made this research project possible. But, completing it in a span of three years is a collective enterprise. I am greatly indebted to my supervisors, Rebecca Albury and Catriona Elder, for thefr untiring support and guidance without which this thesis would not have foimd form. My sincere gratitude to Kathleen Weekley for reading and commenting on the draft thesis; to the staff of the Faculty of Arts, especially Robyn Foster whom I incessantly approached for technical and administrative assistance. This research owes its depth to the Filipino women in Wollongong and Sydney for their ideas on becoming Australian citizens. I am most thankful to Lilia McKirmon for her warmth in welcoming me to their community activities. Undertaking an academic project in another country is doubly hard without the support of family and friends. I am fortunate to have found new friends and family relations in Ausfralia who have made both research and leisure a possibility. To the group of Efleda and Nelson Logro, Susan and Edwin Villanoza, Doric and Gordon Gifford, Zenaida and Brian Mardon, Rogee and Ed Pe-Pua, and Pat Carter - for the wonderfiil memories. I am grateful to my friends, Emlou Tansingco and Leizl Sagliba somewhere in the Philippines for their help in confirming some library sources. Also, a million miles away, I am privileged to have Professor Emeritus Josefa Saniel and Dr. Carolyn Sobritchea as mentors in the University of the Philippines with whom I owe my research 'abilities' and interest on women's studies; that even after formal years of instraction they have never failed to write a recommendation. DC To my family in the Philippines, my parents, Dr. Samuel Rogelio P. Tibe and Louides Bercero Tibe; my parents-in law, Engr. Walderico Bonifacio, Sr. and Balbina Ruiz Bonifacio; other members of the clan, Charito and Francisco Uy; Yoyoy and Joy Bonifacio; Butch and Adelfa Bonifacio; Gemma Lour Tibe-Nayra, Geraldine Joy Tibe and Edna Espos for their encouragement and invaluable assistance in our sojoum to Australia. To my own family in Australia without whom I would not be able to undertake this research: my husband, Ike, and the little women in my life whom I noticed have grown so much since I started writing the ffrst sentence of this research - Charmaine, Czarina, Charelle, Czyna and Charithe - for helping and bearing with me through the days and nights. Lastly, up above the heavens, is the spirit that guides me. To all of you, thank you. G.L.A.T.B. I-Introduction INTRODUCTION Being a woman, a migrant and a citizen is to hold a complex subject position in today's world. It is complex, first, because women in this situation embody multiple roles and identities. Each role is quite distinct from the other yet interrelated. Second, the often- differing social, political and economic conditions in their country of origin and the host society affect migrant women. The shape of the role of women differs in the different countries and migration, therefore, entails what Linda McDowell calls the 'renegotiation of gender divisions.'' Third, emigration does not involve one act but an on-going process of negotiation between the individual and the adopted country. This study explores the interrelationship between women, migration and citizenship by analysing the experiences of a group of first-generation Filipino women in Australia, particularly their perspectives and attitudes towards acquiring Australian citizenship and how it affects their roles as wives, mothers, workers and members of community organizations as well as their identity as Filipinos. These analyses in acknowledging the multiple subject positions extend knowledge of Filipino women as Australian citizens beyond their stereotypical construction as mail-order brides and victims of domestic violence. A. Background of the Study This thesis poses the question, what is it to be a citizen of another country? McDowell, Gender, Identity & Place, p 2. ^ A 'mail-order bride' is a woman