A Quantitative Analysis of Promontory Cave 1: An Archaeological Study on Population Size, Occupation Span, Artifact Use-life, and Accumulation by Jennifer Hallson A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Department of Anthropology University of Alberta © Jennifer Hallson, 2017 Abstract Promontory Cave 1 on Great Salt Lake, Utah exhibits an incredible level of preservation rarely seen at archaeological sites. The high proportion of perishable materials provides a unique opportunity to study cultural remains that are usually lost to taphonomic processes. Extensive radiocarbon dating has defined a narrow occupation period of ca. 1250-1290 CE (Ives et al. 2014) and the bounded space of the cave allows for confident estimations of the total number of artifacts present. I have completed quantitative analyses that use several methods to study Cave 1 and its inhabitants, including: artifact density, three-dimensional modeling, proportional calculations, accumulation equations, and statistical equations. Archaeologists know surprisingly little about the rates at which artifacts enter the archaeological record and my analyses examine this factor along with related variables such as use-life and accumulation with the above methods. The above methods also allow for inferences to be made on population size, population composition, and occupation span and frequency. Quantitative analyses of the Promontory Cave 1 assemblage can be linked directly to the exploration of Dene migration southward from Canada, as artifacts found in the cave point towards an identity of Apachean ancestors during their migration south. This research also has the potential for much broader application in archaeological investigations by increasing our awareness of what is usually missing; organic artifacts by far dominated past life but are often forgotten during site analysis. This research shows that consideration of the role of perishable artifacts is important in archaeological studies even when they are not present. ii Preface This thesis is original work by Jennifer Hallson. No part of this thesis has been previously published. iii Dedication For those who came before me and those who are with me now. iv Acknowledgments First and foremost, I owe a huge debt of gratitude to the landowners of Promontory Cave 1 and 2, George and Kumeroa Chournos, for protecting the caves and being two of the best people I’ve ever had the pleasure of knowing. The following funding sources helped to support me during this degree: the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) Joseph Armand Bombardier Canada Graduate Scholarship-Master’s; the Queen Elizabeth II Graduate Scholarship-Master’s; SSHRC Insight Grant 435-2012-0140 (Apachean Origins: New Explorations of the Canadian Heritage of A. D. 13th Century Dene at Promontory Point, Utah); the Landrex Distinguished Professorship; the Faculty of Graduate and Research Studies, University of Alberta; and the Department of Anthropology, University of Alberta. Thank you to my grandfather, John Gordon, for ensuring that any leftover education costs were covered. Thank you to my supervisor, Dr. Jack Ives, for fostering my love of archaeology for the past five years, for including me in the Promontory Project (and ruining me for future archaeological sites), and for insights during this research. I also want to thank my defence committee: Dr. Kisha Supernant, Dr. Helen Vallianatos, and Dr. Ruth Gruhn, for providing questions and comments that made my thesis better. Special thank you to Kisha for being a mentor and confidant during this stressful grad school life. Thank you to Brigham Young University, including Dr. Joel Janetski, Katie Richards, Lindsay Johansson, and Jaclyn Eckersley, for housing the Promontory Cave collections, for hosting us, and for providing support. I have been incredibly lucky to be part of the Institute of Prairie Archaeology (a.k.a. The Fortress of Solitude) family: Aileen Reilly, Reid Graham, Courtney Lakevold, Christina Poletto, Andrew Lints, and Todd Kristensen, thank you for the all laughs and good times. Special thank you to Aileen for being a mentor and friend ever since I was a student in her Intro to Archaeology lab, and to Christina for listening to me complain about grad school. I’m also grateful to Robert Gustus for always being willing to help me with various aspects of ArcGIS during this project. A shout out to my Anthro Buds Shaina Humble, Kathryn Murphy, Monique Neilson, Michaela Stang, and Kassy Pointer for providing unwavering support throughout this process, and for their willingness to be guinea pigs for my defence presentation. I am grateful to Michaela for helping me during artifact analysis in Provo, and being my artifact photographer. Thank you to my family for their continuous support, even when they weren’t always quite sure what I actually do as an archaeologist. Special thanks goes to my father for always being my first editor (until the page count got too high). And last but not least, to Scott, thank you for your unconditional support and for always thinking I’m the smartest person you know. v Table of Contents Abstract .................................................................................................................................................... ii Preface ..................................................................................................................................................... iii Dedication ............................................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments.................................................................................................................................. v Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................. vi List of Figures ...................................................................................................................................... viii List of Tables .......................................................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1: Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1 Use of Ethnographic Analogy ........................................................................................................................ 4 Research Questions .......................................................................................................................................... 6 Thesis Overview ................................................................................................................................................ 7 Chapter 2: Background Information .............................................................................................. 9 Promontory Caves: Environment ................................................................................................................ 9 Subsistence .................................................................................................................................................................... 13 Seasonality ..................................................................................................................................................................... 14 Surrounding Landscape and Cultures ................................................................................................................ 16 Promontory Caves: Excavations ............................................................................................................... 19 Julian Steward’s Excavations.................................................................................................................................. 19 Modern Excavations .................................................................................................................................................. 23 Radiocarbon Dating and Stratigraphy ................................................................................................................ 33 Livable Areas ................................................................................................................................................................. 39 Types of Artifacts ........................................................................................................................................................ 42 A Unique Opportunity ............................................................................................................................................... 43 Connections to Dene Migration ................................................................................................................ 44 Population Studies ........................................................................................................................................ 47 Chapter 3: How, When, and Why Artifacts Enter the Archaeological Record ................ 55 Formation Theory ......................................................................................................................................... 55 Use-Lives of Artifacts .................................................................................................................................... 58 Systemic Number ..........................................................................................................................................