PDF hosted at the Radboud Repository of the Radboud University Nijmegen The following full text is a publisher's version. For additional information about this publication click this link. http://hdl.handle.net/2066/73402 Please be advised that this information was generated on 2021-10-10 and may be subject to change. UNDER THE UMBRELLA OF THE SULTAN Accommodation of the Chinese in Yogyakarta During Indonesia’s New Order i Photograph cover: Special plaque presented to Sultan Hamengku Buwono IX by the Chinese community in Yogyakarta. (private collection of Bernie Liem) Printed by: Percetakan Kanisius ii Under the Umbrella of the Sultan Accommodation of the Chinese in Yogyakarta During Indonesia’s New Order Een wetenschappelijke proeve op het gebied van de Sociale Wetenschappen Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen op gezag van de rector magnificus prof. mr. S.C.J.J. Kortmann, volgens besluit van het College van Decanen in het openbaar te verdedigen op woensdag 18 juni 2008 om 10.30 uur precies door Andreas Ambrosius Susanto geboren op 17 januari 1963 te Teluk Betung, Indonesië iii Promotor : Prof. dr. F. Hüsken Copromotores : Dr. H.M.C. de Jonge Dr. Charles A. Coppel (Universiteit van Melbourne) Manuscriptcommissie: Prof. dr. A. Borsboom Dr. R. Saptari (Universiteit van Leiden) Dr. J.B.M. Koning (Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam) iv Contents Acknowledgements ix 1. Assimilation in Question 1 Introduction 1 ‘The Chinese Problem’ 3 ‘Assimilationist’ versus ‘Integrationist’ 5 The New Order Policy of Assimilation 7 Terms and Concepts 9 Studies on Assimilation in Indonesia 12 Studies on the Yogyakarta Chinese 14 Argument 16 Research Questions 17 Methods and Fieldwork 18 A Chinese Conducting Research in Chinese Community 23 Outline of Dissertation 26 2. The Yogyakarta Chinese: From Immigrants to Second Class Citizens 28 From Colonial to Early Independence Days 28 The 1950-1965 Periods 36 The 1965 Crisis 38 During the New Order 41 Conclusion 43 3. Profile of the Yogyakarta Chinese Community 44 The City and Its People 44 The Chinese quarters: Pecinan 47 The Chinese Population and Features 51 v Occupation and Economic Activities 55 Religion 57 Education 59 Organisation 62 Conclusion 64 4. Economic Assimilation 65 Introduction 65 Indigenising the Indonesian Economy 67 The Development of the Yogyakarta Chinese’s Business 71 Finding Seed Capital for Conducting Business in Yogyakarta 76 Dealing with Bureaucracy 81 The Relations between Chinese and Indigenous Entrepreneurs 88 Labour Relations 90 Social Responsibility 92 Conclusion 95 5. Socio-Cultural Accommodation 96 Introduction 96 Stereotypes and Grievances of the Social Lives of the Chinese 99 Two Kampungs, Two Stories 101 Quest for Identity 104 Residential Strategy 109 Religion 112 Chinese Organisations 115 Funeral Society 117 Conclusion 121 6. Political Accommodation 123 Introduction 123 Political Trajectory 124 Changing Patterns of Chinese Political Behaviour during the New Order 132 The Abolition of Yogyakarta Chinese Landownership Rights 136 vi The Yogyakarta Chinese Responses 138 The Case of Haji Budi Setyagraha Vs Kantor Pertanahan Bantul 140 Conclusion 142 7. Crisis, Change and Resilience 144 The Turbulence 144 The Situation in Yogyakarta During the Turbulent Period 146 Dealing with Insecurity at the End of New Order 151 Coping with Insecurity 153 Impacts on Economic Life 158 Cultural Revival 163 Conclusion 166 CONCLUSION 168 Early Change in the Reformasi Indonesia 171 Appendix I 174 Appendix II 176 Glossary 177 Abbreviations 179 Bibliography 181 Samenvatting 198 Maps 203 vii viii Acknowledgements his dissertation is about how the Chinese in Yogyakarta accommodate the Tpressures for total assimilation and cope with negative stereotypes, state dis- crimination, and consistent threats of violence. The most important point of this study is the diversity within the Yogyakarta Chinese community in constructing, negotiating, and maintaining their identity, security, social life, economic interests, and civic rights. It is hoped that this study will introduce a thought- provoking discussion about perceiving and treating the ethnic Chinese as a single homogenous entity. I would like to express my gratitude to all those who, in their own special ways, assisted me in completing this dissertation. I shall begin with my three supervisors, Prof. Frans Husken, Dr. Huub de Jonge, and Dr. Charles A. Coppel. I am deeply indebted to Dr. Huub de Jonge who helped me in securing a place in this doctoral programme, offered his guidance, continued editing, help and encouragement, and, together with his wife, Addy, extended their warm friendship from the beginning of my studies in Nijmegen. I do not know how I can ever thank you enough. I would like gratefully and sincerely thank Prof. Frans Hüsken for his guidance, stimulating suggestions, meticulous editing, encouragement, and patience. His careful attention and assistance in completing my study has been incredible. Both of them went above and beyond the call of duty. I also owe a debt of gratitude to Dr. Charles A. Coppel, my supervisor who helped me secure a fellowship at the University of Melbourne, so that I could access the university library and other facilities. Without his guidance and encouragement I would not have been able to finish my first draft. He offered inciteful corrections and suggestions to improve my manuscript in the final stages. ix To my colleagues and friends in the Netherlands: I am very grateful to Gerben Nooteboom for his help, support and priceless friendship. Without the loving care of you and your lovely family I would not have been able to survive difficult times during my stay in the Netherlands. I also want to express my heartfelt appreciation to Els Verzijlbergen and Jan-Luther for their support and close friendship. I will never forget, Broeder Aquino, who offered me his loving support ever since my arrival in the Netherlands. His sincere care meant so much to me. I also want to thank Broeder Hans J. Voets, who wrote the first draft of the Dutch summary (samenvatting) of this dissertation. I have been most fortunate to know Juliette, whose help, support and encouragement has been invaluable in completing this manuscript. I have enjoyed immensely her and her husband Math’s friendship (thank you for revising my samenvatting). I owe both of you more than the words “thank you” can convey. I want to thank all of my colleagues in the Department of Anthropology, Nijmegen University, especially Madam Breedveld, who always welcomed me and sent Christmas cards. Thank you for your help and kind attention. And to Rene van de Haar and Huub who spent a lot of time and energy improving my bibliography and samenvatting. To Mbak Ratna, terima kasih, not only for sharing your room on campus, but most importantly for sharing your insights and also for the friendship you and Ben offered. To Hoekstra, who allowed me to keep my big suitcase at the Museum for many years, thank you. I am also indebted to Herbert and Betty Feith, for their generousity and care, releasing me from my teaching duties in Yogyakarta, thereby enabling me to concentrate on writing my first draft in their house in Melbourne. They also helped to correct my draft. To Herb and Betty, saying “thank you” will never be enough. I also want to thank Arief Budiman and Jemma Purdey, both for discussing my research and for your friendship. I am especially obliged to Marcel and his family, whom I met during my fieldwork. His assistance was invaluable to my research, far more than expected. I also want to thank Pak Iman, Pak Bimo, Pak Simon, Pak Yudi, Pak Sukoco, Pak Hary, Pak Andy, Pak Liem Sioe Siet, Haji Budi, Haji Kwik, dr. Bambang, Bu Emmy, Bu Bernie, Li Ing, Bunadi, Hamzah, and James. I also wish to thank all anonymous respondents that contributed to this dissertation by sharing with me their valuable experiences and insights. x I must thank Didi Kwartanada who was so kind to give me a copy of his thesis and to show me references that were significant to my research. Thank you to Krisna and Ben Abel who were very kind to send me a copy of Liem Sioe Siet’s thesis from Cornell. To Robert Hefner, Go Gien Tjwan, Peter Post, Hotze Lont, Marcel Nieling, Cora, Ann Kelly, Ruli Marianti, Tony Kahane, Kai & Katja, Edi, with whom I shared discussions and friendship, thank you. I also want to thank Bea Honer and Gus, who were my caring hosts during my stay in Nijmegen. To those Indonesian students and families in Nijmegen who offered their warm friendship and hospitality, thanks to all of you. I also want to express my appreciation to the staffs of the International Office at Radboud University. I want to thank Pak Nasikun, Teguh, Dede Oetomo, Kun, Lucinda, Eliza, Yunita, Arum, Yudi, Bambang, Siyamto, Murwani, Argo, Made, Anna, Bakti, Santi, Cinta, Wiwid (who provided me with maps), and other colleagues, students, and friends for their help and support. I also want to thank Joan Suyenaga, my editor, who has helped to clarify my writing. The financial support from the Yayasan Slamet Riyadi, Atma Jaya Yogyakata University and Radboud University Nijmegen, is gratefully acknowledged. I want to offer my special thanks to my mom, dad and all my brothers, whose patience and unwavering love enabled me to complete this long journey. xi xii Chapter One Assimilation in Question Introduction Studies of the Chinese and their relations with the indigenous majority in Indonesia have, for decades, been dominated by the discourse of assimilation. In the 1970s, the Indonesian term for ‘assimilation’, asimilasi, gave away to the term pembauran,1 but the discourse remained unchanged. Pressure on Chinese to assimilate has continued to shape public debate and media coverage (Tan, 1995:13-26). Why has the assimilation trend been so persistent in Indonesia, while it has never been a prominent issue in the rest of Southeast Asia? Unlike in Thailand and the Philippines, where most Chinese have merged with the indigenous population, the Chinese who have lived in Indonesia for many generations have remained a distinct ethnic group (Skinner, 1957; 1960; Weightman, 1960; Ang See, 1995).