This is a repository copy of Mapping structural conditions of journalism in Egypt, Kenya, Serbia and South Africa. White Rose Research Online URL for this paper: http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/117303/ Monograph: Lohner, J, Banjac, S and Neverla, I (2016) Mapping structural conditions of journalism in Egypt, Kenya, Serbia and South Africa. Working Paper. MeCoDEM . ISSN 2057-4002 (Unpublished) ©2016 Judith Lohner, Sandra Banjac, Irene Neverla . The Working Papers in the MeCoDEM series serve to disseminate the research results of work in progress prior to publication in order to encourage the exchange of ideas and academic debate. Inclusion of a paper in the MeCoDEM Working Papers series does not constitute publication and should not limit publication in any other venue. Copyright remains with the authors. Reuse Unless indicated otherwise, fulltext items are protected by copyright with all rights reserved. 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[email protected] https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ Judith Lohner, Sandra Banjac, Irene Neverla Mapping structural conditions of journalism in Egypt, Kenya, Serbia and South Africa June 2016 1 The Working Papers in the MeCoDEM series serve to disseminate the research results of work in progress prior to publication in order to encourage the exchange of ideas and academic debate. Inclusion of a paper in the MeCoDEM Working Papers series does not constitute publication and should not limit publication in any other venue. Copyright remains with the authors. Media, Conflict and Democratisation (MeCoDEM) ISSN 2057-4002 Mapping structural conditions of journalism in Egypt, Kenya, Serbia and South Africa Copyright for this issue: ©Judith Lohner, Sandra Banjac, Irene Neverla WP Coordination: University of Hamburg/Irene Neverla Editor: Katy Parry Editorial assistance and English-language copy editing: Emma Tsoneva University of Leeds, United Kingdom 2016 All MeCoDEM Working Papers are available online and free of charge at www.mecodem.eu For further information please contact Barbara Thomass, [email protected] This project has received funding from the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme for research, technological development and demonstration under grant agreement no 613370. Project Term: 1.2.2014 – 31.1.2017. Affiliation of the authors: Judith Lohner University of Hamburg [email protected] Sandra Banjac University of Hamburg [email protected] Irene Neverla University of Hamburg [email protected] Table of contents Executive Summary ........................................................................................................... 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3 Dimensions of Analysis for mapping structural conditions of journalism ............................. 5 Country reports: Current structural conditions in Egypt, Kenya, Serbia and South Africa ..29 Egypt ........................................................................................................................29 Kenya .......................................................................................................................44 Serbia .......................................................................................................................72 South Africa ..............................................................................................................89 Discussions and conclusions .......................................................................................... 107 Bibliography .................................................................................................................... 112 Executive Summary Based on a multi-dimensional scheme as a conceptual framework, this working paper maps the structural conditions relevant to journalism and conflict communication in Egypt, Kenya, Serbia and South Africa, using a wide range of country-specific academic literature and reports compiled by various non-academic organisations active in the media sector. - ‘Structural conditions’ are to be understood as the totality of (formal and informal) orders and structures that characterise media and journalism in a certain space, most commonly, a country. - Eleven interrelated and interdependent dimensions of structural conditions relevant to media and journalism have been extracted and adapted from existing literature, guiding structured and comprehensive analysis within specific (country) contexts: (1) historical development, (2) political system, (3) political culture, (4) media freedom, (5) level of state control and regulation of media by the state, (6) media ownership and financing, (7) structure of media markets and patterns of information distribution, (8) orientation of media, (9) political/societal activity and parallelism of media, (10) journalism culture, and (11) journalistic professionalism. - Country reports feature a unique set and combination of structural factors shaping media and journalism in the four countries, demonstrating the importance of conflict communication as a case study with regard to structural conditions. For example, different degrees of democratisation regarding media structures become evident in varying levels of media freedom and state interference in the media sector. Moreover, there are significant differences in media landscapes and the structure of media markets, reflecting the different size, economic situation, infrastructure and cultural, ethnic and linguistic diversity of the four countries, as well as the differing degrees of literacy and spending power of inhabitants. - As to cross-national similarities, media and journalism face highly complex, ambivalent, contradictory and changing structural conditions in all four countries. These are shaped by the legacies of a non-democratic past, hybrid forms of political governance and a political culture which features a strong cleavage of ideologies and high level of clientelism. The constitutional 1 guarantee of media freedom which exists in all countries is challenged by ambivalent or openly repressive media laws and a reluctance of governments to implement fundamental media reforms. Accordingly, the state plays an important role in the media sector, mirrored in political influence especially in the governance of (public/state) broadcasting and regulatory bodies, financing and interference in editorial decisions. Journalists in all four countries are likely to face pressures, harassment and the risk of prosecution, leading to a considerable gap between legal provision and the practice of media freedom. Furthermore, all countries are confronted not only with a relatively high level of media concentration but also with a considerable degree of political ownership. While the journalistic profession faces challenges regarding journalistic education and training, professional organisation and self-regulation, journalists in all four countries execute their jobs under precarious conditions, marked by professional insecurity, low salaries, as well a low professional status and fragile social reputation. 2 Introduction In specific situations such as democratisation conflicts and in certain countries, as well as in general terms journalistic performance and journalism culture are informed by various interrelated constituents: journalistic work practices, role perceptions, ethical orientations, and, last but not least, the structural conditions of journalism (Neverla et al. 2015). Based on Kleinsteuber (2005, p.275), by structural conditions, we understand the totality of (formal and informal) orders and structures that characterise media and journalism in a certain space, most commonly, a country. These structural conditions are established on four levels: (1) the respective society in general, (2) the media system, (3) the professional field of journalism and (4) the particular media organisation. It is important to keep in mind that while structures are often referred to as something static or ‘given’, they are established by different actors and always subject to changes (Hallin and Mancini 2012b, p.302–303). This particularly applies to countries in transition. Thus, agency and the procedural dimension are also an important focus of analysis when investigating the structural dimensions of journalism. In this working paper we aim to map the structural conditions of journalism in the four MeCoDEM countries and by doing so: Develop a consistent and comprehensive scheme of dimensions relevant to structural conditions of journalism by existing literature Systematically and comprehensively map the structural conditions relevant to journalism and conflict communication in the four MeCoDEM case study countries - Egypt, Kenya, Serbia and South Africa - based on this