Faculty of Humanities School of Education Tamil and Tamils: A Study of Language and Identity amongst the Indian Tamil Community in Singapore Rajeni Rajan This thesis is presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Curtin University February 2018 2 Declaration To the best of my knowledge and belief, this thesis contains no material previously published by any other person except where due acknowledgement has been made. This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university. Human Ethics The research presented and reported in this thesis was conducted in accordance with the National Health and Medical Research Council National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research (2007) – updated March 2014. The proposed research study received human research ethics approval from the Curtin University Human Research Ethics Committee (EC00262), Approval Number HR 154/2013. Signature: Date: 23rd February 2018 3 Abstract This study investigates language shift in the Tamil community, a minority group in Singapore, and the maintenance of their mother tongue, Tamil, which is one of four official languages in the nation-state, the rest being English, Mandarin and Malay. A secondary component of the study seeks to examine notions of identity amongst young Tamils. Drawing on Edwards’ (2010) typological framework to analyse a minority language situation and of its speakers, this study presents a comprehensive insight into the language maintenance and shift phenomenon under study. The Tamil language situation has been of increasing concern, lately in terms of its usage, particularly amongst the young Tamils in Singapore. Previous research including census reports, have consistently pointed to a decline in the use of Tamil due to various reasons. Furthermore, the English-educated Tamil community has been reported to identify more with the wider English-speaking community due to the so-called higher socioeconomic status associated with this group. This study sought to clarify if these ‘past’ conclusions remain relevant in present-day Singapore among young Tamils, in addition to ascertaining ways in which Tamil is maintained in Singapore. Using a mixed methods approach, data were collected from a questionnaire survey; a document survey consisting of curriculum reviews, speeches, and census reports; focus group discussions and in- depth interviews. The sample (N=319) for the questionnaire and follow-up focus group discussions was drawn from secondary, pre-tertiary and tertiary institutions. In-depth interviews were conducted with 14 key informants drawn from the education sector, the local Tamil media, and a Tamil organisation. Thematic analysis was used to examine the qualitative data whereas the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to provide a descriptive statistical analysis of the quantitative data. Contrary to previous studies, this study shows that the decline in Tamil language usage, in general, is not a consequence of the perceived low status reported, or of the attitudes towards the language; neither is the decline due to the stigma 4 attached to Tamil as a ‘coolie’ language. Rather, the decline in Tamil language usage in contemporary Singapore is a result of an interplay of challenges that include lack of fluency in Tamil, the predominance of English in schools, the economic viability of Mandarin, and the multi-racial dynamic in Singapore. Findings also demonstrate that the most common language use pattern across the home, school and friendship domains is the use of both Tamil and English through strategies such as ‘translanguaging’. Moreover, young Tamils, in contrast to earlier research, have adopted a positive attitude towards their mother tongue, and identify themselves with the language, indicating that speaking Tamil is an essential part of their identity. Ongoing institutional support, in addition to current initiatives undertaken by the local Tamil media and Tamil organisations to promote and maintain the language, indicate positive growth for the language. This study takes a stance that there is a possibility for Tamil to be a living language in Singapore, and in light of the positive attitudes and growing support observed amongst young English-educated Tamils, the declining use in Tamil may be gradually averted. 5 Acknowledgements My sincerest gratitude to the two most important people who supported my passion to pursue a study on Tamil language: my supervisors, Professor Grace Zhang and Professor Andy Kirkpatrick. Their vast amount of knowledge and experience, in addition to their level of commitment to my research undertaking, helped steer the study with both insight and foresight. Their gentle nudges, constant encouragement, and positivity have made this intense, meaning-making journey a thoroughly rewarding one. Their prompt and constructive feedback following every draft always inspired me to stretch my potential, as did their keenness to detail. Needless to say, they have been instrumental in nurturing scholarly pursuits, which have provided me with the opportunity to discover the researcher in me. Also, their down-to-earth and caring nature has been a source of strength when challenges came my way. My heartfelt appreciation to my supervisors for critiquing, as much as valuing my work throughout this five-year journey. They have been, and will remain significant for this milestone achieved. This study, which was based in Singapore, would not have progressed without the immense support from each and every participant. Special thanks to the individuals who went out of their way in assisting me with logistics, in particular, Mdm A. Mallika to whom I am especially grateful, and still others who, in spite of their extremely demanding work, made time for interviews. The warmth and enthusiasm of the Tamil teachers and other key informants, as well as other members of the Tamil community I was introduced to during my fieldtrips, all the more fuelled my aspiration to make my research a worthy contribution. I would like to thank the librarians from Humanities and staff at Robertson Library, Curtin, who patiently helped me with the constant flow of enquiries, clarifications and requests throughout my study. Not forgetting my wonderful friends and colleagues at Curtin, who kept close tabs on my progress, and who cheered me on as I gradually saw the ‘light at the end of the tunnel’. Room 253 will remain a treasure trove of memories. It will be an understatement to say my family has been a pillar of strength during this challenging, yet fulfilling journey. Words cannot emote the extent of their limitless love which has kept me afloat in every chapter of my life. My amma 6 (mother), who was Tamil-educated, and appa (father), who was English-educated, provided me with an enriching bilingual home environment, which not only cultivated an appreciation for the English language, but more important than that, for the Tamil language that I grew up speaking and writing as a mother tongue, and which I continue to do. I am also grateful to my parents for introducing me to the Tamil classical performing arts that largely define me. I am indebted to my mother for her unparalleled, selfless devotion to my well-being, especially during my Ph.D. study, and my beloved grandmother, to whom I owe my life for her unconditional love up to this day. My appreciation goes to my mother-in-law, who, despite her state of dementia, wished me well each time I reminded her of my ‘big degree’ whenever she walked into the study. Also, a special mention of a very dear uncle I lost while pursuing my Ph.D., whose occasional calls from Singapore to check on my progress always brightened my day. I believe his blessings continue. I cannot thank enough the one person who believed in my capabilities more than I did, my husband and dearest friend, Rajan, who was the prime motivator for this doctoral endeavour. His cheer, smile and unwavering support never failed to lift me whenever I was overwhelmed during the course of study. His relieving me of my many responsibilities I had as a mother and daughter-in-law to ensure I had the space and time for my research study, far outweighed the challenges I faced in pursuing this study. Finally, I dedicate this work on ‘Tamil and Tamils’ to my lovely children, Shaaliniy and Reshan, who acquired Tamil as their mother tongue during their early childhood while in Singapore, and who still continue to use it now in Australia. I trust their appreciation of, and engagement with Tamil and the Tamil culture will carry forth the language and values associated with it. 7 Table of Contents Declaration ................................................................................................................... 2 Abstract ........................................................................................................................ 3 Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... 5 Table of Contents ......................................................................................................... 7 List of Tables ............................................................................................................. 12 List of Figures ............................................................................................................ 13 List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................