The Limits of “Ethnic War”: Intra-Group Violence and Resistance during the Bosnian War Gordana Božić Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctorate in Philosophy degree in Political Science School of Political Studies of Department of Political Science Faculty of Social Science University of Ottawa © Gordana Božić, Ottawa, Canada, 2018 Abstract The Bosnian war was not a purely “ethnic conflict,” as both in-group members and out-group members were sacrificed for the higher political objective, namely, ethnic homogenization of divided Bosnian territories. In particular, I argue the sacrifice of in-group members, especially those who lived on the out-territory, was integral to the violence directed against out-group members. The process of resettlement of the ethnic kin was just as important as the expulsion of the ethnic “other” for re-creating a new ethnic and political balance in select strategic areas. Furthermore, the practice of the appropriation of existing and the creation of new parallel state structures were the main mechanisms of the process of the sacrifice of in-group members from the out-territory. In turn, nationalist narratives were constructed not only to justify those new structures, but also to portray ethnic minorities as potentially dangerous and threatening. In order to complete ethnic homogenization, Bosnian nationalists directly targeted the private household, expelling Bosnians from their homes and appropriating and destroying their private property. I argue that violence against the household rendered the private sphere political. In the second part of the thesis, I reflect on actions and words of ordinary Bosnians, both in-group and out-group members, who resisted violence and helped each other during the war. In particular, I argue that although the lack of basic needs brought Bosnians of different ethnicities together, a long-term result of this necessity-driven action was political: the restoration of their citizenship and the preservation of their community at the local level for after the war. ii Acknowledgments My thanks go first and foremost to my research supervisor, Professor Dominique Arel. On our life’s path, we all meet a few exceptional people who influence us. Professor Arel belongs to a small minority of such people who greatly changed my life when he convinced me to do a PhD and supported my application. Throughout the studies, he consistently encouraged me to publish and attend conferences. I will never forget his words: “Gordie, never give up in academia.” Also, thanks to Professor Arel for suggesting the title of the thesis. Last but not least, I am grateful to Professor Arel for having secured financial aid in the last two years of my studies. Professor Arel, thank you for believing in me. Without you, this thesis would not have been possible. My thanks also go to Professor Sophie Bourgault who inspired and motivated me, especially in moments when I self-doubted. Professor Bourgault has a unique ability to make her students feel confident and passionate about their research subject. Her patience, encouragement, and motivation literally brought tears to my eyes on more than one occasion. She was always available to review my earlier drafts of Chapter Five and Chapter Six. Even when she was away on sabbatical, Professor Bourgault was always at my disposal. Her direction and detailed and timely feedback were invaluable. Throughout my PhD studies, I worked as a Senior Analyst for the War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity Section of the Department of Justice. I fail to find adequate words to express my gratitude for the support and encouragement I received from the Section. I will never take for granted the leave I received in order to complete my PhD studies. The Section also generously agreed to facilitate my research by allowing me to use public ICTY documents that are in its iii possession. Thanks to the Section’s support, I never lost passion and enthusiasm for the thesis. I consider myself blessed to be an employee of such a great team that values and encourages learning and knowledge sharing. All views expressed in the thesis are entirely mine. The second part of the thesis is based on field research. What kept me passionate during the writing process were the stories of Bosnians. Their courage to resist injustices and the compassion they showed for their fellow neighbours who were subject to violence during the Bosnian civil war were inspiring. Ever since I met those exceptional Bosnians, I have never stopped asking myself “Would I act like them, if I were in a similar situation?” When I went through self-doubt and difficult times in the writing, it was their stories that lifted me up. I endured in order to tell their stories. Thanks to all respondents who opened their homes to me, shared their personal experiences, and went out of their ways to introduce me to their neighbours. My thanks also go to numerous other people from Bosnia who helped me during my research, everything from offering me accommodation, food, transportation, company, and advice. I’m indebted to Professor Dubravko Lovrenović from the University of Sarajevo for his support, especially for helping me identify villages that fit into my research methodology and establish contacts. I was saddened to learn that Professor Lovrenović passed away in 2017. Also, my thanks go to the Bosnian Franciscan monks of the “Kraljeva Sutjeska” Monastery, especially Fr Stjepan Duvnjak, and to the Sestre Milosrdnice (Sisters of Charity) of “St. Vinko Paulski” from Livno, especially Sister Miroslava. Thanks also go to Fr Darko Drljić, Župa Žitače, and his lovely mother. Without their help and hospitality, the research would have been much more iv difficult to complete. Also, I am grateful to Milenko from Bošće, Mrkonjić Grad, Darko from Vukanovići, and a taxi driver from Derventa who drove me around and introduced me to local villagers. Last but not least, my thanks go to Mila and Aida from Sarajevo. Mila was so kind to drive me to Seonice, a remote village in Konjic municipality, while Aida introduced me to various contacts in Bosnia. One of the first things PhD students are told is that the writing part is very isolating. Without friendship and company of Nyambura Githaiga, my fellow PhD student (now Dr. Githaiga), and Zoé Dugal, my long-time friend, writing would have been a near-total isolating experience. They listened over coffees and dinners to my self-doubts, complaints, and frustrations, always encouraging me to go on. Last but not least, many thanks to Zoé for editing the final draft of the thesis. My thanks also go to Yves and Ginette Perrier, who are like my parents. Staying with them at their cottage at Lac Gagnon was relaxing and inspiring. Yves set up for me a temporary office at the cottage with a beautiful lake view. In the winter, they always kept a place at their fireplace, serving me with morning coffee before I started my writing and a glass of red wine at the end of day, when I was tired from writing. Yves and Ginette cooked for me, took me out for sailing, canoeing, and cross country skiing and totally spoiled me while I was writing at their cottage. Yves and Ginette, thank you for your precious friendship. And last but not least, thanks go to my brother Božidar in Norway and sister Suzana in Bosnia. Although they are physically separated from me, they were always with me when I needed v somebody to talk to. There were days when I talked to nobody but them. I cherish hours I spent with my brother passionately discussing the Bosnian war and politics. Earlier drafts were partially written in Norway, Bosnia, and Greece. Thanks to my relatives in Bosnia who never stopped asking me when I would finish my writing (and what is next). vi Dedication To the memory of my loving parents, Radojka and Cvijetin, and their homeland, Bosnia vii Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................iii Dedication ...........................................................................................................................................vii Table of Contents ..............................................................................................................................viii List of Illustrations ............................................................................................................................ x List of Abbreviations ..........................................................................................................................xi Chapter 1: Introduction: Reflection on Violence and Resistance in the Context of the Bosnian War………………………………………. ........................................................................1 1.1. On Violence: Was the Bosnian War an “Ethnic Conflict”?.....................................................2 1.2. On Resistance and the Private Realm.........................................................................................18 1.3. Research Methodology ...............................................................................................................29 1.4. Structure of the Thesis ............................................................................................................... 39 Chapter 2: Literature Review: Re-thinking