dysfunctional nature of the system they inherited and maintained. Ad- mittedly, theirs is a peculiar "au- tonomous"behaviour which contrib- utes to gross violations of rights and the socio-economic and political de- cay of the state. Another factor that sustains the culture of crises is ex- ternal to the country. Firstly, a HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS number of governments, democratic and authoritarian, in the South and North, have directly and indirectly supported dictatorial regimes in the country. Through economic, diplo- matic and military assistance the wheel ofviolence and dictatorship is serviced. Secondly, by treating the crises as essentially internal affairs In the past three decades since sequence off tends to change other of the sovereign state, the interna- Uganda gained independence from qualities of life so that from a number tional community has done little to Britain, the country has experienced of different starting points, follow- avert violations of rights. Finally, some of the worst human catastro- ing different trajectories of change, by maintaining the unjust and ex- phes in modern times -gross viola- comparable results may ensue. This ploitative international economic tions of human rights, amounting to view seems to hold true for all the system which violates the right to genocide and generating millions of questions posited. Nonetheless, on development, the international com- refugees and internally displaced the balance of the evidence, this munity directly violates the rights persons; state sponsored terrorism, paper contends that while the ori- of Ugandans. dictatorship, nepotism, corruption, gins of violations of rights in Uganda The point is, the economic under- ethnicity, civil wars, famine; total lie in a blend of factors, colonialism development of the country, which collapse of the economy; the disinte- and its lopsided socio-economic and is a result of both internal and ex- gration and demise of the state. The political structures are central to ternal contradictions (past and magnitude and severity of the crises addressing the question. This is not present) further reduces the capa- are comparableto those experienced to suggest that origins of violations bility of the marginal state in pro- by Afghanistan, Cambodia, Ethio- may not be located in pre-colonial moting and protecting universal pia and the Sudan. While both the African societies, but rather, as a human rights. That is, a close link short and long-termcosts of the prob- territorial unit, Uganda did not ex- exists between economic develop- lems are devastating to the nation ist before European partition of Af- ment and advancement of human as a whole, the weight of the burden rica. rights. It is on this issue of develop- differs depending on gender, class, These oppressive, exploitativeand ment as a significant contributor to region, age group and the particular tension laden socio-economic and human rights that the commitment period. A number of important ques- political structures, preservedin the of Western democracies to human tions warrant investigation here: main since the colonial era, go a long rights in Uganda and other under- what are the origins of the crises? way in explaining the persistence of developed countries, is quite sus- Why do they persist? What can be the crises. What this means is that pect. done to avert them? the conventional overwhelming em- There are no simple solutions to There are many possible origins of phasis on the roles of rulers (Milton the crises. Nonetheless, by way of violations. Given the current state Obote, Idi Arnin, Yusuf Lule, Godfrey suggestion, this paper maintains of research on human rights in the Binaisa, Paulo Muwanga, Tito that it is vital to cast the problem of country and the partial nature of Okello and Yoweri Museveni) and violations of rights in the context of literature, it is difficult to isolate their armies in those violations, of- the historical development of the any single factor from a series of ten obscures rather than clarifies country -because it is within such other factors that seem to be equally their functions in the broader struc- a perspective that the current issue important in addressing the issue. tures. of human rights and refugeeimay Again, causes and results of viola- This, however, does not mean that best be understood and tackled. tions are not easy to empirically these rulers are mere victims who The international community - isolate. That is, whatever starts the are helplessly constrained by the democratic governments, regional - -- Volume 11, Number 3 and international inter-governmen- which today constitute Uganda, the beginning of the contemporary his- tal organizations, NGOs, academic politico-religious wars, discrimina- tory of violence and abuse of mili- institutions and religious commu- tory missionary education, the for- tary might in "overcoming" the prob- nities - should play an important mation of political parties, religious lem ofpolitical legitimacy in Uganda. role in bringing to an end the hu- and ethnic discriminations and the Thirdly, by using Semei Kakungulu man tragedy in the country. This problem of political legitimacy and and his Ganda troops and adminis- means that the international com- the role of the military in violations trators to spread colonial rule in munity should play a fundamen- of rights. It is hoped that this ap- other parts of the country, a new tally new role - come to grips with proach, though limited in scope, will dimension was added to pre-colonial human rights abuses in the country help explore the questions. intergroup tensions and ethnic con- and stop treatingviolations ofrights flicts. The majority of the conquered as internal affairs of the sovereign THRCOLOWIAL BACKCROUWD subjects in other parts of the coun- state. It also means that the rheto- TO HUMANRIGHTS try saw the expansion of colonial ric about the "new era" of human Vl0~~TloNs rule as a vital part of Buganda sub- rights and democracy should be An analysis of the history of human imperialism. It was therefore not tested against actual policies and rights violations in Uganda must surprisingthat Buganda rather than practice. Constant pressure should begin with an examination of the colonialism was perceived as the the be exerted on any regime in the conflict-laden, oppressive and ex- immediate enemy ofthe people (A.D. country to practice democratic plu- ploitative socio-economic and politi- Roberts, 1962, 435-50; M.S.M. ralism and protect human rights. cal structures fashioned and left Kiwanuka, 1968, 603-19; I.R. Also, it should be remembered that behind by the colonial regime - Hanocock, 1971, 305-23; Karugire, promoting and protecting human because this is where the immediate 1980); and finally, it was also at this rights will require initiating self- root causes of contemporary crises point in history that a new class of sustaining and equitable economic may be located. Colonialism by its political rulers and administrators development; a responsibility which very nature is inherently authori- emerged, whose power emanated the international community should tarian and exploitative -a flagrant almost exclusively from the illegiti- not shy away from. It is on this issue negation of the fundamental rights mate colonial state. Naturally, this that the question of debt crises and of the colonized. To begin with, the ruling class was accountable to the the policies of the World Bank and arbitrary and artificial creation of regime, not the colonized masses IMF and their implications for hu- colonial borders divided families, as (Mamdani, 1976). man rights should also be evaluated well as ethnic, cultural and linguis- The colonial policies of divide and and tackled. Certainly, it is inap- tic groups into different nation rule and "indirect rule" further propriate and misleading to create states. More specifically in the case marginalized prospects for national a false and rigid dichotomybetween of Uganda, this colonial design identity and unity. By granting dif- internal and external initiatives, lumped together into a single ad- ferent parts of the country different economic and political. Actions on ministrative unit over forty ethnic political and economic status, the all fronts should take place simulta- groups which formerly had not de- country shared only one thing in neously. Unless this role is taken veloped much in common ( Karugire, common, colonialism. It was also seriously, the international commu- 3; Minority Rights Group, July 1989; through this type ofpolitical arrange- nity will continue to address the Sathyamurthy, 1). Also, the colo- ment that the Buganda or Uganda symptoms rather than the root nial political strategy by which the Agreement of 1900 became a source causes ofgross human rights abuses various political units were inte- of new tensions within Buganda and and refugee flights from the coun- grated, rested on violence and politi- between Buganda and the rest of the try. Therefore it must be empha- cal manipulation. country (Sathyamurthy, 139; Mam- sized that only when human rights Four important points are worth dani, 1976,120-88).This Agreement conditions in Uganda improve sub- noting: firstly, the creation of strait- invariably forced other kingdoms stantially, will current and future jacket colonialboundaries separated and districts to "gang up" against human rights abuses and refugee peoples of the same linguistic and Buganda during the move towards a flows be averted. cultural groups. The Banyaruanda federal union. Similarly, the transi- This study will briefly cover the question, for example, has its gen- tion from quasi-federalism to a uni- period immediately before the era of esis in the European partition (Clay, tary state led to increased tensions formal European colonialism up to 1984;Catherine Watson, 1991).Sec- and political conflicts (G.S.K. the present day. In particular it will ondly, colonialism was essentially Ibingira, 1973). examine colonial strategies and tac- imposed by military violence andlor In order to understand the struc- tics of socio-economic and political through other forms of manipula- tural socio-economic inequalities integration of various countries tion and coercion.