An Exploration of Prehistoric Ontologies in the Bering Strait Region An Exploration of Prehistoric Ontologies in the Bering Strait Region: Boundaries and Structures By Feng Qu An Exploration of Prehistoric Ontologies in the Bering Strait Region: Boundaries and Structures By Feng Qu This book first published 2021 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2021 by Feng Qu All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-5275-5752-9 ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-5752-9 Project supported by the National Social Science Fund of China (Grant No. 18AKG001) TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures............................................................................................ ix List of Tables ............................................................................................ xii Introduction and Acknowledgements ...................................................... xiii Why Eskimo? Why Alaska? .............................................................. xiii But Problems Emerged ...................................................................... xiv Wayward Theories ........................................................................... xviii About This Book ................................................................................. xx Acknowledgements .......................................................................... xxiii Chapter 1 .................................................................................................... 1 Theoretical Jungles: Cognitive Archaeology and Structuralism Cognitive Theory and Prehistoric Religion and Art .............................. 2 Religion and Cognition ................................................................... 4 Art and Cognition ............................................................................ 7 Problems with Cognitive Archaeology ........................................... 8 Symbolism and Structural Archaeology ............................................... 8 Classical Structuralism .................................................................... 9 Theory of Practice and Post-processual Archaeology ................... 11 Summary ............................................................................................. 16 Chapter 2 .................................................................................................. 17 Theoretical Jungles: From Shamanism to New Animism Archaeology of Shamanism ................................................................ 17 Ethnographic Analogy ................................................................... 18 The Neuropsychological Model .................................................... 21 Animist Ontology and Relational Archaeology .................................. 26 Perspectivism and New Animism ................................................. 28 Relational Archaeology ................................................................ 31 Summary ............................................................................................. 36 vi Table of Contents Chapter 3 .................................................................................................. 37 Prehistoric Art in the Bering Strait Region Okvik Culture ..................................................................................... 40 Old Bering Sea Culture ....................................................................... 52 Ipiutak Culture .................................................................................... 67 Punuk Culture ..................................................................................... 72 Birnirk Culture .................................................................................... 79 Thule Culture ...................................................................................... 81 Summary ............................................................................................. 91 Chapter 4 .................................................................................................. 93 Art Symbolism and Religious Practices in Ethnographic Records Art Symbolism and Daily Life ............................................................ 95 Clothing and Weaving ................................................................... 96 Decorative Art on Tools and Utensils ........................................... 96 Charms and Amulets ................................................................... 103 Toys ............................................................................................. 105 Secular and Religious Purposes .................................................. 105 Art Symbolism and Ceremonialism .................................................. 106 The Men’s House ........................................................................ 107 Masks .......................................................................................... 109 Shamanic Practices and Religious Ideas ........................................... 110 Spiritual Worldview .................................................................... 111 Shamans and Shamanism ............................................................ 112 Shamanic Practices and Material Culture .................................... 114 Summary ........................................................................................... 120 Chapter 5 ................................................................................................ 122 Ethnographic Analyses of Prehistoric Symbolism: Shamanic Visions or Traditional Knowledge Circle-Dot Motif ............................................................................... 123 Circle-Dot Motif in Archaeology ................................................ 123 Circle-Dot Motif in Ethnology .................................................... 126 Analyses of the Circle-Dot's Meanings ....................................... 128 Shamanic Vision or Traditional Knowledge ............................... 131 Animal Images .................................................................................. 132 Type A-1 Animal Figurines ........................................................ 132 Type A-2 Animal Figurines ........................................................ 136 Type B Animal Figurines ............................................................ 138 An Exploration of Prehistoric Ontologies in the Bering Strait Region: vii Boundaries and Structures Human Figures .................................................................................. 141 Human Figurines in Archaeology ............................................... 141 Ethnographic Analyses of Archaeological Human Figurines...... 142 Summary ........................................................................................... 145 Chapter 6 ................................................................................................ 147 Ivory versus Antler: A Reassessment of Binary Structuralism Initial Assumption of Binary Structures ........................................... 147 Ivory for Sea Hunting and Antler for Land Hunting: McGhee's Approach ..................................................................................... 150 Decorated Ivory and Undecorated Antler: Were Binary Structures Encoded? ..................................................................................... 153 Okvik Site.................................................................................... 154 Kukulik Site ................................................................................ 155 Decorative Art for Sea Hunting: Sea Hunting Centralism ................ 159 Nukleet Site ................................................................................. 159 Antler for Land Hunting and also for Sea Hunting: Reassessment of McGhee's Archaeological Approach ....................................... 165 Birnirk Sites ................................................................................ 166 Not Genderized but Animalized: Reassessment of McGhee's Ethnographic Approach ............................................................... 168 Summary ........................................................................................... 171 Chapter 7 ................................................................................................ 172 Rebuilding of the Body: Ontological Perspective of Eskimo Symbolism From Individual Ritual to Communal Ceremonialism ...................... 173 Occurrence of Communal Ceremonialism .................................. 173 Ethnological Masks and Archaeological Mask-like Images ....... 176 Personhood and Revelatory Style Art ............................................... 178 Revelatory Style Art .................................................................... 178 Revelatory Style Art on Eskimo Masks ...................................... 179 Body Metamorphosis and Rebuilding of the Body ........................... 182 Body Metamorphosis .................................................................. 182 Rebuilding of the Second Body ......................................................