Chapter 10 Principles of Conserving the Arctic’s Biodiversity Lead Author Michael B. Usher Contributing Authors Terry V.Callaghan, Grant Gilchrist, Bill Heal, Glenn P.Juday, Harald Loeng, Magdalena A. K. Muir, Pål Prestrud Contents Summary . .540 10.1. Introduction . .540 10.2. Conservation of arctic ecosystems and species . .543 10.2.1. Marine environments . .544 10.2.2. Freshwater environments . .546 10.2.3. Environments north of the treeline . .548 10.2.4. Boreal forest environments . .551 10.2.5. Human-modified habitats . .554 10.2.6. Conservation of arctic species . .556 10.2.7. Incorporating traditional knowledge . .558 10.2.8. Implications for biodiversity conservation . .559 10.3. Human impacts on the biodiversity of the Arctic . .560 10.3.1. Exploitation of populations . .560 10.3.2. Management of land and water . .562 10.3.3. Pollution . .564 10.3.4. Development pressures . .566 10.4. Effects of climate change on the biodiversity of the Arctic . .567 10.4.1. Changes in distribution ranges . .568 10.4.2. Changes in the extent of arctic habitats . .570 10.4.3. Changes in the abundance of arctic species . .571 10.4.4. Changes in genetic diversity . .572 10.4.5. Effects on migratory species and their management . .574 10.4.6. Effects caused by non-native species and their management .575 10.4.7. Effects on the management of protected areas . .577 10.4.8. Conserving the Arctic’s changing biodiversity . .579 10.5. Managing biodiversity conservation in a changing environment . .579 10.5.1. Documenting the current biodiversity . .580 10.5.2. Identifying changes in the Arctic’s biodiversity . .583 10.5.3. Recording the Arctic’s changing biodiversity . .585 10.5.4. Managing the Arctic’s biodiversity . .589 10.5.5. Concluding remarks . .590 Acknowledgements . .591 References . .591 540 Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Summary 10.1. Introduction Biodiversity is fundamental to the livelihoods of arctic Arctic peoples obtain their primary source of food and people.The Convention on Biological Diversity defines many of the materials used in clothing and building from biodiversity as “the variability among living organisms the plant and animal species indigenous to the Arctic. from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine These species range from mammals, fish, and birds, to and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological com- berries and trees. However, the relationship between plexes of which they are a part: this includes diversity arctic people and those arctic species upon which they within species, between species and of ecosystems”. depend is not simple since each of these species is in A changing climate can affect all three levels of bio- turn dependent on a range of other arctic species and on diversity.There are many predicted influences of cli- the ecological processes operating within the arctic mate change on the Arctic’s biodiversity.These include ecosystems.The biological diversity of the arctic envi- (1) changes in the distribution ranges of species and ronment is thus fundamental to the livelihoods of arctic habitats; (2) changes in the extent of many habitats; peoples. Relevant information from indigenous peoples (3) changes in the abundance of species; (4) changes in on arctic biodiversity is given in Chapter 3. genetic diversity; (5) changes in the behavior of migra- tory species; (6) some non-native species becoming The two major processes operating within ecosystems problematic; and (7) the need for protected areas to be are photosynthesis and decomposition. Photosynthesis is managed in different ways. the biochemical process whereby radiant energy from the sun is used to synthesize carbohydrates from carbon What should be done now before the anticipated dioxide (CO2) and water in the presence of chlorophyll. changes occur? First, it is important to document the The energy fixed during photosynthesis is transferred current state of the Arctic’s biodiversity. Local invento- from the primary producers through successive trophic ries of biodiversity have generally not been carried out, levels by feeding and thus starts the food chains and food although the inventory for Svalbard is a striking excep- webs upon which all animal life depends.The organisms tion, recording both native and non-native species in responsible are green plants – predominantly vascular both terrestrial and marine environments. Such work plants in the terrestrial environment and algae in the requires trained ecologists, trained taxonomists, circum- freshwater and marine environments.The vascular polar knowledge, and a focus on all three levels of bio- plants, which include all flowering plants and ferns, are diversity (genes, species, and ecosystems). Second, the relatively well-known taxonomically and feature in most changes that take place in the Arctic’s biodiversity need books on the terrestrial environment of the Arctic to be identified. Management of the Arctic’s biodiversity, (e.g., CAFF, 2001; Sage, 1986).The non-vascular plants in the sea, in freshwater, or on land, must work with such as the mosses, liverworts, and lichens are less well- ecological succession and not against it. Considerably known taxonomically.The algae are taxonomically the more effort needs to be invested in developing predic- least well-known plants of the Arctic; most are single- tive models that can explore changes in biodiversity celled and many have a wide distribution range within under the various scenarios of climate change.Third, the northern hemisphere (John et al., 2002). changes in the Arctic’s biodiversity need to be recorded and the data shared. In a situation where so much uncer- Decomposition is the process whereby dead plant and tainty surrounds the conservation of biodiversity, knowl- animal material is broken down into simple organic and edge of what has changed, where it has changed, and inorganic compounds, with a consequent release of how quickly it has changed becomes critically impor- energy.The carbon is released back into the atmosphere tant. Monitoring biodiversity, especially on a circum- as CO2, and nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, polar basis, must be a goal, and a circumpolar monitor- and potassium are available for recycling. Decomposi- ing network needs to be fully implemented so as to tion processes are undertaken by an enormous range of determine how the state of biodiversity is changing, organisms in soils and in aquatic sediments.These what the drivers of change are, and how other species organisms include bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, and people respond. Finally, new approaches to manag- protozoa, nematodes, worms (especially enchytraeid ing the Arctic’s biodiversity need to be explored. Best worms), mollusks, insects (especially collembolans – practice guidelines should be available on a circumpolar springtails, and dipteran larvae – flies), crustaceans, basis.The Circumpolar Protected Area Network needs and arachnids (especially mites). Species richness can to be completed and reviewed so as to ensure that it be outstanding, with up to 2000 species within a square does actually cover the full range of the Arctic’s present meter of grassland soil (Usher, 1996), which has led to biodiversity.An assessment needs to be made, for each soil being considered “the poor man’s tropical rain protected area, of the likely effects of climate change, forest”. However, many of the species in soils and sedi- and in the light of this assessment the methods of man- ments are unknown and undescribed, and their roles in agement for the future.This poses questions of resources the soil or sediment ecosystem, and in the processes of and priorities, but it is essential that the Arctic’s ecosys- decomposition, are very poorly understood.This means tems continue to exist and function in a way that such that, within a changing climate, there are many ques- services as photosynthesis, decomposition, and purifica- tions about the decomposition process that need tion of pollutants continue in a sustained manner. addressing (Heal, 1999). Chapter 10 • Principles of Conserving the Arctic’s Biodiversity 541 In addition to photosynthesis and decomposition, there visitors) depend, and whether the Arctic exacerbates are many other important ecological processes operating climate change by releasing greater quantities of CO2 to within arctic ecosystems, for example: pollutant break- the atmosphere or helps to control climate change by down and detoxification, the purification of water, the acting as a sink for atmospheric CO2. Biodiversity is release of oxygen, and nutrient recycling. therefore both affected by and affects climate change. The major ecosystems of the Arctic, and their biological The first two lines of approach to biodiversity conserva- diversity, are addressed in detail in other chapters: tion are often the development of lists of species and Chapter 7 addresses the terrestrial environment, focus- habitats to be given special protection (usually through ing on the tundra and polar desert ecosystems; Chapter legislation, and often on the basis of “Red Lists”), and 8 addresses freshwater ecosystems; and Chapter 9 the designation of protected areas where biodiversity addresses marine systems.This chapter focuses on the conservation takes primacy over other forms of water principles of conserving biodiversity, exploring the and land use. By 1990, there had been significant ecosystems, species, and genes in the Arctic, and the achievements (IUCN, 1991) in establishing protected threats faced in a changing environment.The starting areas in the Arctic. Norway, Sweden, and Finland, for point for this discussion is the Convention on Biological example, all had strict nature reserves (IUCN manage- Diversity (SCBD, 2000), which states that its objectives ment category I), national parks (IUCN category II), are “... the conservation of biological diversity, the sus- and/or other nature reserves (IUCN category IV) with- tainable use of its components and the fair and equitable in their arctic territories. In fact, the extent of these sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of protected arctic areas is often considerably greater than genetic resources...” (Article 1).