View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Ghent University Academic Bibliography The king's most e oquent #$mpaigne%... &mi e 'e L$(e e)e, Leopo ' II $n' the #%e$tion o* the Congo Free St$te -.N /.N0&R,1I,,&N1 2222222222222222222222222222222222222222222+RFC Rese$%#he% 3 4ni(ersit) o* Li5ge 1. INTR604CTI6N In the Belle Époque, #oloni$ thought took ne8 *orms, $nd $ se#ond 8$(e of &"%ope$n #o onis$tion s8ept ove% .*%i#$. King Leopo ' II of Be gium :1835- 1909, %. 1865-1909) be#$me $#ti(e in Congo in 1;76. His $mbition to de(e op $ so-#$ e' Aphi $nth%opi#A p%oBe#t m$te%i$ ise' in $ p%o#ess o* st$te *orm$tion, but this 8$s o(e%shadowe' @) int%igues $nd tensions %es" ting *%om the te%%ito%i$ %$#e bet8een Ceste%n powe%s $nd Leopold's own men in the *ie d. 6n ) $ de#$de $*te% this %$#e beg$n, $t the Be% in Cong%ess in 1884- 1885, 8$s $ *ina sett ement $dopte' in the *orm of the Congo +%ee ,t$te, o* 8hi#h the king of the Be gi$ns be#$me the7$ most7"nass$i $@ e sove%eign. In the $st !"$%te% of the nineteenth #ent"%) tensions bet8een ibe%$ $n' #onse%($ti(e *orms of gove%nment inf uen#e' inte e#t"$ i*e e(e%)8he%e in &"%ope $nd g$(e %ise to st%ong de@$te bet8een $'(oc$tes o* *%ee t%$de $nd supporte%s of #oloni$ ism. The o ' i'e$ th$t Leopo ' II 8$s $n isol$te' thinke% $nd 'oe% 8ho e$%ne' himse * $ pl$#e $mong the powe%s that took .*%i#$ enti%e ) @) his own e**o%ts h$s been %e*ute' @) $ ne8 gene%$tion of histori$ns. /incent /i$ene :200;? %e#onst%"#te' in 'et$i the *orm$tion $n' e(olution o* $ Be gi$n parti colonial th$t ope%$te' next to $nd sometimes independent ) of the king. 1) own %ese$%#h has exp $ine' how, in de(e op- ing his #oloni$ 'oct%ine since the e$% ) 1860s, Leopol' II 8$s inspi%e' @) m$n) inte e#t"$ s 8ho 8$nte' to st%engthen Be gi$n t%$de $nd indust%) through $ po i#) of e#onomi# expansion o"tside &"%ope :/$nde%smissen, 2008aF 2009$F 2009b?. I ha(e shown how 3 $s $ #%own prin#e 3 Leopol' de(e ope' $n e**i#ient s)stem o* inform$tion g$the%ing on #oloni$ issues. He methodi#$ ) #onst%"#te' $ pe%son$ set of opinions on how #olonies shoul' be o%g$nised. His t%$(e s to North .*%i#$ $nd the 1i'' e &$st :&g)pt, the Hol) L$nd, ,)%i$ $nd C)prus in 1854-1855; . ge%i$ $n' &g)pt in 1862- 1. Co%respon'en#e #on#erning this $%ti# e sho" ' @e $''resse' to -$n /$n'ersmissenG B$n.($n'e%smissenH" g.$#.@e BTNG | RBHC, XLI, 2011, 1-2, pp. 7-57 1863), the B$ k$ns $nd T"%ke) :Rom$ni$, Ist$nbul $n' .thens in 1860?,7$n' .si$ :Ce) on, Indi$ $nd Chin$ in 1864-1865) $#t"$ ) 8e%e s)stem$ti# st"') through di%e#t obse%($tion. 6(e% the )e$%s he improve' his inte%(ie8ing te#hni!"es 8hen t$ king 8ith spe#i$ ists $nd highl) pl$#e' o**i#i$ s 8ho #ou ' in*orm him $bout po iti#$ $nd e#onomi# de(e opments in %egions 8ith A#o oni$ potenti$ A. In B%usse s, he bui t up $ document$%) net8ork, org$nise' 8ith the he p o* his se#%et$%) .'%ien Go**inet :1812-1886) $nd #onst$nt ) en%i#he' 8ith ne8 '$t$ @) $ Ast"') #i%# eA o* @%i i$nt men s"#h $s Henri-. exis B%i$ mont :1821-1903) $nd -" es LeBe"ne :1828-1911). .*te% his $##ession to the th%one in 1865, Leopo ' II #hange' t$#ti#s *%om # $ssi# info%m$tion g$the%ing to $ more $#ti(e m$nipu $tion o* peop e $nd institutions that #ou ' he p him %e$ ise his eEpansionist '%e$ms. ,#hol$%s, politi#i$ns, @"sinessmen, Bourn$ ists, 'iplom$ts, e$%ne' so#ieties,... 3 $ be#$me ent$ng e' in the king's 8e@ :/$nde%smissen, 2009a?. .s H$nnes /$nh$"8$e%t has shown !"ite #o%%e#t ), the king de(e ope' $ 1$#hi$(e i$n s)stem of in* uencing, using $nd misusing $ ong se%ies of $'(iso%s 8ho 8e%e #%"#i$ *or %e$#hing his goa s 8ithin $ gi(en #ontext. Leopo ' II $tt%$#te' people to himse * $nd integ%$te' them into his inne% #i%# e th%ough use of m"#h * $tte%), but 8hen the) ha' be#ome "se ess o% disobedient 3 *o% eE$mple, &mi e B$nning :1836-1898) in the e$% ) 1;=0s 8ith %eg$%' to the sit"$tion in Congo 3 he '%oppe' them inst$nt ) $nd %emo(e' them *%om thei% pri(i eged positions :/$nh$"8$e%t, 2005?. It has be#ome # e$% *%om %e#ent st"dies that Leopol' II $ 8$)s use' the #$pa#ities of inte e#t"$ s in $ s)stem$ti# 8$). The *i%st time this $#t"$ ) e(ol(e' into $ se%ies o* se%ious $#tions 8$s in the e$% ) 1870s, 8hen he *ocuse' his $ttention on s#hol$%s 8ho 8e%e $#ti(e in the *ie ' of e#onomi# geog%$phy. In 1875, through inte%$#tion 8ith the Ageog%$phi#$ movementA, Leopold's $ttention shi*te' *%om &$st .si$ to Cent%$ .*%i#$ :/$nde%smissen, 2009a?. Cith the Inte%nationa Geog%$phi#$ Confe%ence that took pl$#e in B%usse s in 1876, the geog%$phi#$ net8o%k be#$me $ #orne%stone o* Leopold's #oloni$ #onst%"#tion :see $ so La Conférence de géographie, 1976). It prove' to be $n $ ) *o% his ne8 (ent"%e in m$ny 8$)s. The geog%$phi#$ societies of London, K$%is $n' Be% in o**e%e' $ p $t*o%m *or the A#i(i ising proBe#tA to @e %e$ ise' in .*%i#$ @) 8e #oming *$(ou%$@ e Ahum$nit$%i$n $%gumentsA in thei% dis#ussions, e#t"%es $nd Bo"%n$ s. The geog%$phi#$ societies of .nt8e%p $n' B%usse s, *ounde' sho%t ) $*te% the Confe%ence, we%e7%e$ prop$g$nda m$#hines *or the Leopol'i$n ente%p%ise. The eEe%#ise in 'ip om$ti# $nd po iti#$ A$%m 8%est ingA bet8een 1876 $nd 1885 e$'ing to the #%e$tion o* the Congo +%ee ,t$te h$s $ %e$') been investig$te' $t ength, in p$%ti#" $% unde% the impulse of -e$n ,tenge%s, @"t I;J -. /.N0&R,1I,,&N histori$ns pai' $ most no $ttention to the inte e#t"$ net8orks th$t 8eighe' on the process o* st$te *o%m$tion $*te% the B%usse s Confe%ence of 1876.2 In this $%ti# e I $na )se $n eE$mple of s"#h $n inte e#t"$ net8o%k through $ #$se st"') $bout the %e $tionship @et8een Leopo ' II $nd the Be gi$n i@e%$ - minde' politi#$ e#onomist &mi e de L$(e e)e :1822-1892), $n inf uenti$ opinion m$ke% 8ho ha' the $bi it) to disseminate his publi#$tions $nd i'e$s on $n inte%nation$ s#$ e.< To he p him %e$ ise his .*%i#$n ente%prise, the king sought $i' *%om $8)e%s $nd inte e#t"$ s $#ti(e in the *ie ' o* po iti#$ e#onom). I $'($nce the thesis that the king use' de L$(e e)e's sha%p pen in his *$(our $nd thus h$' $##ess to de L$(e e)e's #ont$#ts in the 8or ' of politi#s $nd Bo"%n$ ism, $s 8e $s to $ g%oup o* e$ding thinke%s on inte%nationa 7 $8. 0e L$(e e)e $nd his #o e$gues Boine' Leopo ' II in his %e* e#tions $@out the most s"it$@ e po iti#$ , e#onomi# $n' soci$ st%"#t"%es *o% the ne8 st$te unde% #onst%"#tion in Cent%$ .*%i#$. B$se' on $n $na )sis of pub i#$tions $nd %e#o%ds p%ese%(e' in GhentD $nd B%"sse s,5 this $%ti# e t%ies to $ns8e% $ set of spe#i*i# questions. +i%st, 8hat 8e%e &mi e de L$(e e)e's ide$s $bout exp$nsionism $nd #o onis$tionM ,e#ond, how $nd 8hy 'i' Leopo ' II, de L$(e e)e $nd his net8o%k of $#$'emi# *%iends $nd #o e$gues be#ome inte%%e $te'M Thi%', 8hat opinions di' the $#$demi# net8o%k ha(e on the Congolese !uestion? .nd *ina ), how 'i' this net8ork e$(e its m$%k on the *e$t"%es o* the Congo +%ee ,t$te $*te% 1885? The gene%$ obBe#ti(e of this $%ti# e is to o**e% $ bette% unde%st$nding of the Leopol'i$n s)stem of dep oying inf uenti$ peop e to implement $ sophisti#$te' st%$teg) 8hose goa 8$s to #%e$te $ s"##ess*" ove%se$s possession "n'e% the king's pe%son$ %" e, in the7*$#e o* potenti$ opposition f%om othe% g%e$t powe%s.