A Critical Analysis of Local and Global Cultural Factors in Graphic Wayfinding Design - A Case Study of Beijing By Lingqi Kong Supervisor: Dr Robert Harland Supervisor: Dr Malcolm Barnard 1 ABSTRACT The main intentions of this thesis are to analyse and explain changes in the function and graphic components of Beijing’s wayfinding systems and to explain how the systems construct multiple cultural and political identities at different historical periods and in changing local/global contexts. In the thesis, the oversimplified one-way theory of the global-local dichotomy, in which the global power of the West is overwhelming and constantly dominant, and the local system of non-Western countries is passive and fragile, is challenged. Instead, this thesis seeks to examine the interactivity and correlation of the local and the global from two perspectives: mobility and reversibility. Looking at mobility is to consider the local and global and their nexus as different interconnections and networks that are constantly and unevenly changing. Reversibility, with which this thesis is most concerned, deals primarily with the reversible relationship of the local and global, namely, that either the local or the global can be dominant. This point is well illustrated by the evolution of Beijing’s graphic wayfinding systems’ function and appearance. Beijing, as the capital of China, has undergone a radical transformation from the fall of the last Empire – Qing (1912) to the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (1949). The meaning of Beijing varies in accordance with the changes in its political and social structures. There have been five phases in Beijing’s development: a well-planned imperial city; a capital city with a republican spirit; a totally industrialised but relatively isolated capital of a socialist country; an open and modernised Chinese-style socialist city; and a cosmopolitan city. In the course of this metamorphosis, what took place was a series of collisions, exchanges, fusions, and re-collisions between local power and global power. Along with the immense changes in Beijing, the role and appearance of the graphic wayfinding systems have also changed, especially those of road signs and doorplates, whose roles have been transformed from that of initial household register to orientation reference, to 2 effective propaganda tool, and then on to the regeneration of a city. Finally, Beijing’s graphic wayfinding design within its urban development has been reconfirmed as a useful instrument to support the new forms of visual narratives and consolidate the city brand of Beijing in the 21st century. This study probes into the political and cultural significances behind the changes of the graphic wayfinding systems of Beijing, as well as the interaction between the local and the global as reflected in the formation of these findings. The mutable and reversible relationship between the local and the global is illustrated and clarified through analysis and comparison of various functions and visual elements between Beijing’s present graphic wayfinding systems and its early wayfinding signs, as well as decoding the different mainstream political or cultural ideologies that have deeply affected the function and design of Beijing graphic wayfinding systems at different periods. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to show my gratitude to a number of people for their ongoing support in the creation of this thesis. To my supervisors, Dr Malcolm Barnard and Dr Robert Harland, for their invaluable guidance and always being there for me. Without their patient and professional support, I could not have done it. To my colleague, Fabia Lin, for inspiring and encouraging me when I lost confidence. To my close friends, Chunyan Wu, Xinyi Wang, Harry Gui, and Zeming Wu for being the most cheerful and patient of companions. To our PGR administrator, Emma Nadin for her patience, kindness and assistance. Finally, I would like to thank my father Xiangjun Kong, my mother Guilian Xing, and my sister Nuannuan for giving me a loving home and incredible support. 3 PREFACE I started learning drawing and painting when I was about fifteen years old and went on to take an undergraduate programme in Film & Television Design and Graphic Design. Throughout these years, the drawing and designing courses have not only helped me develop my skills as a qualified designer, but have also shaped the way I see and think about the world. More importantly, many years of design practice and experience have made me perceptive and sensitive to colours, shapes, symbols and typefaces. Living and studying in the UK has given me an excellent opportunity to enjoy the unique British visual culture and a definite insight into the differences between British and Chinese culture, especially with respect to the construction of urban identity. In particular, the black-and-white street signs, sometime decorated with crests and symbols, and the Underground signs of London provide tourists with a rich and memorable visual experience. The typeface, typography and colour of these signs have been adjusted to provide a uniform appearance. According to the book, London Underground By Design, for example, and to exhibitions in the London Transport Museum, the design of Underground and street signs has not changed radically over the years; and various experiments were conducted with font design and selection to investigate the legibility and readability of these public signs. The most striking effect these signs and books had on me was the recognition of the close connection between public signs, urban history and identity. A well-designed urban graphic wayfinding design can make significant contributions to people’s daily life and give them a sense of place. In contrast, Beijing’s doorplates, road and alley signs have been diverse in the past and continue to be in the present. Thus, the question of the graphic wayfinding design’s role in Beijing is raised by a comparison between Beijing’s graphic wayfinding signs and London’s. When did the Chinese people begin to use doorplates and roads signs? What are the reasons for the dramatic changes in Beijing’s sign systems? Is there any cultural and political significance and are there implications for these Beijing’s signs and their names in the local and global contexts 4 since nearly everything is given symbolic meaning in China? Finally, I put all these thoughts together into my research questions for this PhD and embarked on a memorable journey to discover Beijing’s authentic culture and its connection with the rest of the world through its graphic wayfinding systems. 5 CONTENT Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1Research Context………………………………………………………………….10 1.2 Research Questions………………………………………………………………14 1.3 Structure of the Thesis………………..…………………………………………..15 1.4 Originality and Contribution……………………………………………………..20 Chapter 2: Methodology and Methods 2.1 Introduction and Research Design……………………………………………….21 2.2 Collection and Analysis of Secondary Data……………………………………...24 2.3 Collection, Generation and Use of Visual Data………………………………….28 2.4 In-Depth Semi-Structure Interview………………………………………………37 2.5 Summary…………………………………………………………………………41 Chapter 3 Literature Review – Theory 3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………43 3.2 Local and Global…………………………………………………………………45 3.2.1 Globalisation……………………………………………………………….45 3.2.2 The Relationship between the Local and the Global………………………49 3.2.3 Mobility……………………………………………………………………54 3.2.4 Reversibility……………………………………………………………….59 3.3 Graphic Design and Urban Design………………………………………………65 3.3.1 Graphic Design and Wayfinding Design…………………………………..66 3.3.1.1 Graphic Design……………………………………………………66 3.3.1.2 Wayfinding Design………………………………………………..67 3.3.1.3 The Functions of Graphic Design…………………………………81 3.3.1.4 Local Values, Global Values and Graphic Design………………..88 3.3.2 Graphic Design in Urban Design…………………………………………..93 6 3.3.2.1 The Relationship between Graphic Design and Urban Design……93 3.3.2.2 Graphic Design (Wayfinding Design), Urban Design and City Identity…………………………………………………………….98 3.4 Summary……………………………………………………………………..102 Chapter 4 Literature Review –Historical Context and Process 4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………..103 4.2 Traditional Urban Design and Planning of Beijing……………………………..103 4.2.1 The Centralised Composition of Beijing and Confucian Ceremony System……………………………………………………………………..104 4.2.2 The Design of Beijing Embodies Yinyang Wuxing Theories……………..112 4.3 The Influences of Western Ideologies and Technologies on the Design and Construction of Beijing…………………………………………………....116 4.3.1 The Disintegration of the Late Qing Dynasty and the Beginning of the Republic of China (1840-1949) ………………………………………….118 4.3.2 The Foundation of the People’s Republic of China and the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1949-1976) ………………………………………...125 4.3.3 The Implementation of the Reform and Opening Up Policy (1978) and 21ST Century China……………………………………………………………..132 4.4 Summary………………………………………………………………………..137 Chapter 5 First Phase 1840 to 1912 – Baojia System 5.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………..140 5.2 Baojia System – Doorplates Registry…………………………………………..140 5.2.1 ‘Wayfinding’ in Ancient China…………………………………………...141 5.2.2 Doorplates in the Baojia System………………………………………….154 5.3 Visual Analysis of the Graphic Wayfinding Systems of Beijing from 1840 to 1912…………………………………………………………………………………170 5.4 Summary………………………………………………………………………..182 7 Chapter 6 Second Phase 1912 to 1949 – Public Orientation and Direction Signage System